Characterization, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Activity of Vinegar Resulting from the Natural Fermentation of Two Varieties of Apple: Gala Royal and Golden Delicious

MIKOU Karima^1,

¹Laboratory of Functional Ecology and Environment Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, University Sidi Mohammed Ben Abdellah, Fez, Morocco

Cite this paper:
MIKOU Karima. Characterization, Antioxidant, and Antibacterial Activity of Vinegar Resulting from the Natural Fermentation of Two Varieties of Apple: Gala Royal and Golden Delicious. Journal of Food and Nutrition Research. 2025; 13(7):246-255. doi: 10.12691/jfnr-13-7-3

Abstract

Consumption of fermented foods is associated with a wide range of nutraceutical benefits, including antioxidant and antibacterial properties. Because of this, the demand for fermented food products is steadily increasing. Vinegar is a fermented product with many health benefits. The purpose of this work is to characterize and evaluate the antioxidant and antibacterial activities of vinegar produced through a natural two-step fermentation process: an alcoholic fermentation followed by an acetic fermentation. This vinegar is made from two apple varieties, Gala and Golden, and compared with a control composed of industrial vinegar. Prepared vinegars contain varying amounts of nutrients (B, K, Ca, Mg, Na, and Fe), pectins, and β-carotene. Prepared vinegars are richer in these elements compared to industrial vinegar. Vinegar from the Golden variety exhibits higher antiradical activity (IC50 = 20 mg/mL) compared to the Gala variety (IC50 = 40 mg/mL) and industrial vinegar (IC50 = 25 mg/mL).This activity may be influenced by the presence of carotenoids, as demonstrated in this study. However, no clear proportional relationship was observed between carotenoid content and antiradical activity, since the highest carotenoid concentration was found in the vinegar from the Gala variety, which exhibited lower antiradical activity. The antibacterial activity of vinegar samples was evaluated based on their inhibitory effect on bacterial growth. The study focused on measuring inhibition zones, which are widely recognized indicators of antibacterial potential. This approach allowed us to assess the functional antibacterial properties of the vinegars by determining their effectiveness in limiting bacterial proliferation. Antibacterial activity was observed against three bacterial strains: Hafnia alvei, Bacillus subtilis, and Escherichia coli. The vinegar from the Golden variety exhibited greater activity against Hafnia alvei (12 mm vs. 9 mm) and Escherichia coli (9.2 mm vs. 7 mm) compared to the Gala variety, which showed higher activity against Bacillus subtilis, with an inhibition diameter of 10.1 mm. The different properties found in these prepared vinegars can be utilized in different sectors such as the agri-food or nutraceutical sector.

Keywords:
Apple variety vinegar phytochemistry antioxidant activity antibacterial activity

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

References:

[1]	Hopkins, W.G. 2003. Physiologie végétale. De Boeck Supérieur. 532 pages. ISBN, 2744500895.
[2]	Knekt A., Jarvinen R., Reunanen A. and Maatela, J.1996. Flavonoid intake and coronary mortality in Finland: a cohort study. British Medical Journal. 312(7029): 478-813.
[3]	Bazzano, L. A., Serdula, M. K. and Liu, S. 2003: Dietary intake of fruits and vegetables and risk of cardiovascular disease. Current atherosclerosis reports. 5: 492-499.
[4]	Aune, D., Giovannucci, E., Boffetta, P., Fadnes, L., TeresaNorat, N., Greenwood, D.C., Riboli, E. Vatten, L.J. and Tonstad, S. 2017. Fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of cardiovascular disease, total cancer and all-cause mortality—a systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective studies. International journal of epidemiology. 46(3): 1029–1056.
[5]	Hertog, M.L.G., Hollman, P.C.H. and Katan, M.B. 1992. Content of Potentially Anticarcinogenic Flavonoids of 28 Vegetables and 9 Fruits Commonly Consumed in the Netherlands. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry. 40: 2379-2383.
[6]	Scalbert, A., Manach, C., Morand, C., Rémésy, C. and Jiménez, L. 2005. Dietary polyphenols and the prevention of diseases. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 45(4):287-306.
[7]	Lampe, J.W. 1999. Health effects of vegetables and fruits: Assessing mechanisms of action in human experimental studies. The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 70: 475-490.
[8]	Nicoli, M.C, Anese, M. and Parpinel, M. 1999. Influence of processing on the antioxidant properties of fruit and vegetables. Trends in Food Science & Technology. 10 (3): 94-100.
[9]	Okoko, B. J., Burney, P. G., Newson, R. B., Potts, J. F. and Shaheen, S. O. 2007. Childhood asthma and fruit consumption. European Respiratory Journal. 29: 1161-1168.
[10]	Mukherjee, A., Gómez-Sala, B., Eibhlís M., O'Connor, E.M., Kenny, J.G. and. Cotter, P.D. 2022. Global Regulatory Frameworks for Fermented Foods: A Review. Frontiers in Nutrition. 9: 26-42.
[11]	Li, K.J., Brouwer-Brolsma E.M., Burton-Pimentel K.J., Vergères, G. and Feskens, E.J.M. 2021. A Systematic Review to Identify Biomarkers of Intake for Fermented Food Products. Genes & Nutrition. 16(1): 5.
[12]	Scholberg, P., Haag, P. Hocking, R. and Bedford, K. 2000. The use of vinegar vapor to reduce postharvest decay of harvest fruit. HortScience. 35 (5): 898 – 903.
[13]	Muganti, R.K., Farahin, A., SweeKeong,Y., Janna Ong, A., Melati, K., Abdul Rahman, O. Mohd. Azuraidi, O., Adam Thean, C.L., Sharifah Alawieyah, S.M, and Noorjahan, B. A. 2022. Clinical and Preclinical Studies of Fermented Foods and Their Effects on Alzheimer’s. Diseas Antioxydants.11 (5): 883.
[14]	Muhialdin BJ, Zawawi N, Abdull Razis AF, Bakar J, Zarei M. 2021. Antiviral activity of fermented foods and their probiotics bacteria towards respiratory and alimentary tracts viruses. Food Control. 127:108140.
[15]	Ebihara, K. and Nakajima, A. 1998. An Effect of Acetic Acid and Vinegar on Blood Glucose and Insulin Responses to Orally Administered Sucrose and Starch. Agricultural and Biological Chemistry 52 (5): 1311 – 1312.
[16]	KONDO, S., Kenji, T., Yoshinori, T., Katsumi, I. and Yukio, Y. 2001. Antihypertensive Effects of Acetic Acid and Vinegar on Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry. 65, (12): 2690–2694.
[17]	Liljeberg, H. and Björck, I. 1998. Delayed gastric emptying rate may explain improved glycaemia in healthy subjects to a starchy meal with added vinegar. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 52: 368-371.
[18]	KISHI, M., Masahiro, F., Yoshinori, T., Takashi, N. Kazushige, T. and Naoyuki, N. 1999. Enhancing Effect of Dietary Vinegar on the Intestinal Absorption of Calcium in Ovariectomized Rats, Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry, 63(5): 905-910.
[19]	Verzellon, P., Tagliazucchi, D. and Conte, A. 2007. Relationship between the antioxidant properties and the phenolic and flavonoid. Food chemistry. 105 (2): 564-571.
[20]	Qingping, X. Wenyi T. and Zonghua, A. 2007. A Antioxidant activity of vinegar melanoidins. Food chemistry. 102 (3): 841-849.
[21]	Sakanaka, S. and Ishihara, Y. 2008. Comparison of Antioxidant Properties of Persimmon Vinegar and Some Other Commercial Vinegars in Radical-Scavenging Assays and on Lipid Oxidation in Tuna Homogenates. Food Chemistry. 107: 739-744.
[22]	Ousaaid, D., Laaroussi, H., Mechchate, H., Bakour, M., El Ghouizi, A., Mothana, R.A., Noman, O., Es-safi, I., Lyoussi, B. and El Arabi, I. 2022. The Nutritional and Antioxidant Potential of Artisanal and Industrial Apple Vinegars and Their Ability to Inhibit Key Enzymes Related to Type 2 Diabetes In Vitro. Molecules. 27(2):567.
[23]	Pearson, D.A. and Tan, C.H.1999. Apple juice inhibits human low-density lipoprotein oxidation. Life Sciences. 64: 1913-1920.
[24]	Vinson, J.A., Su, X., Zubik, L. and Bose, P. 2001. Phenol antioxidant quantity and quality in foods: fruits. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 49 (11): 5315-21.
[25]	Boyer, J. and Liu, R.H. 2004. Apple Phytochemicals and Their Health Benefits. Nutrition Journal. 3: 1-15.
[26]	Harborne, J.B. 1984. Textbook of Phytochemical Methods. A Guide to Modern Techniques of Plant Analysis. 5th Edition, Chapman and Hall Ltd, London, 21-72.
[27]	Britton, G., Liaeen, J. S. and Pfander, H. 1995. Carotenoïd Isolation and analysis. Birkhauser Verlay. Booston.
[28]	Kulkarni, S.G. and Vijayanand, P. 2010. Effect of extraction conditions on the quality characteristics of pectin from passion fruit peel (Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa L.) LWT- Food Science and Technology. 43 (7): 1026 1031.
[29]	Brand-Williams, W., Cuvelier, M.E. and Berset, C. 1995. Use of a free radical method to evaluate antioxidant activity Article preview LWT - Food Science and Technology. 28 (1): 25-30.
[30]	Bertani, G. 2004. Lysogeny at mid-twentieth century: P1, P2, and other experimental systems. Journal Bacteriology. 186: 595-600.
[31]	Koch, T. C. L., Briviba, K., Watzl, B., Fähndrich, Ch.; Bub, A., Rechkemmer, G. and Barth, S. W. 2009. Prevention of colon carcinogenesis by apple juice in vivo: impact of juice constituents and obesity. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 53 (10): 1289-302.
[32]	Lamson, D.W. and Brignall, M.S. 2000. - Antioxidants and cancer, part 3: quercetin. Alternative Medicine Review. 5: 196-208.
[33]	Hubbard, G.P., Wolffram, S., Lovegrove, J.A. and Gibbins, J.A. 2003. The role of polyphenolic compounds in the diet as inhibitors of platelet function. Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 62: 469-478.
[34]	Gerhauser, C. 2008. Cancer chemopreventive potential of apples, apple juice, and apple components. Planta Medica. 74(13): 1608-1624.
[35]	Mee, K.A., Gee, D.L. 1997. Apple fiber and gum arabic lowers total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in men with mild hypercholesterolemia. Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 97: 422-424.
[36]	Gonzalez, M., Rivas, C., Caride, B., Lamas, M.A. and Taboada, M.C. 1998. Effects of orange and apple pectin on cholesterol concentration in serum, liver and faeces. Journal of Physiology and Biochemistry. 54: 99-104.
[37]	Aprikian, O. Duclos, V. S. Guyot, S., Besson, C., Manach, C., Bernalier, A., Morand, C., Rémésy, C.and Demigné, C. 2003. Apple pectin and a polyphenol-rich apple concentrate are more effective together than separately on cecal fermentations and plasma lipids in rats. The Journal of Nutrition. 133: 1860-1865.
[38]	Peces-Pérez, R., Vaquero, C., Jesús Callejo, M. and Antonio Morata, A. 2022. Biomodulation of Physicochemical Parameters, Aromas, and Sensor Profile of Craft Beers by Using Non-Saccharomyces Yeasts. ACS Omega. 7(21): 17822–17840.
[39]	JiaJia, W., Ying K. M., Fen Fen, Z.and FuSheng, C.2012. Biodiversity of yeasts, lactic acid bacteria and acetic acid bacteria in the fermentation of Shanxi aged vinegar, a traditional Chinese vinegar. Food Microbiology. 30(1): 289-97.
[40]	Beukema, M. Faas, M.M. and De Vos, P. 2020. The effects of different dietary fiber pectin structures on the gastrointestinal immune barrier: impact via gut microbiota and direct effects on immune cells. Experimental & Molecular Medicine. 52(9): 1364–1376.
[41]	Miazek, K., Beton, K., Śliwińska, A. and Płuska, B. 2022. The Effect of β-Carotene, Tocopherols and Ascorbic Acid as Anti-Oxidant Molecules on Human and Animal in Vitro/in Vivo Studies: A Review of Research Design and Analytical Techniques Used. Biomolecules. 12(8): 1087.
[42]	Haftek, M., Abdayem, A. and Guyonnet-Debersac, P. 2022. Skin Minerals: Key Roles of Inorganic Elements in Skin Physiological Functions. International Journal of Molecular Sciences. 23(11): 62-67.
[43]	Anatoly, V. S., Michael A., and Alexey A.T. 2021. Chapter 8 – Zinc. Advances in Food and Nutrition Research. 96: 251–310.
[44]	Owumi, S.E., Nwozo, S.O., Effiong, M.E. and Najophe, E.S. 2020. Gallic acid and omega-3 fatty acids decrease inflammatory and oxidative stress in manganese-treated rats. Journal of Experimental Biology. 245(9): 835-844.
[45]	Tenaillon, O., Skurnik, D. Picard, B. and Denamur, E. 2010. The population genetics of commensal Escherichia coli. Nature Reviews Microbiology. 8 (3): 207-217.
[46]	Rowe, P.C., Orrbine, E., Lior, H., Wells, G.A. and McLaine, P.N. 1993. A prospective study of exposure to verotoxin-producing Escherichia coli among Canadian children with hemolytic uraemic syndrome. The CPKDRC co-investigators. Epidemiology and Infection. 110: 1–7.
[47]	Rangel, J.M., Sparling, P.H., Crowe, C., Griffin, P.M. and Swerdlow, D.L. 2005. Epidemiology of Escherichia coli O157:H7 outbreaks, United States, 1982–2002. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 11: 603-9.
[48]	Halleux, Ma. 2018. Bacillus cytotoxicus dans les matrices alimentaires. Faculté des bioingénieurs, Université catholique de Louvain, 2018. Prom.: Mahillon, Jacques.
[49]	Haoyu, L., Huijuan D., Jieni, W., Wenhao, Z., Guo,J., Zhang, X. and Hao, Z. 2022. Specific Strains of Honeybee Gut Lactobacillus Stimulate Host Immune System to Protect against Pathogenic Hafnia alvei. Microbiology spectrum. 10(1): 1896-21.