Journals A-Z
All Subjects
Free Journals
sciepub.com
American Journal of Energy Research
ISSN (Print): 2328-7349 ISSN (Online): 2328-7330 Website: https://www.sciepub.com/journal/ajer Editor-in-chief: Apply for this position
Open Access
Journal Browser
Go
Issue 1, Volume 11
Article Metrics
  • 2770
    Views
  • 3254
    Saves
  • 0
    Citations
  • 6
    Likes
Export Article
American Journal of Energy Research. 2023, 11(1), 1-14
DOI: 10.12691/ajer-11-1-1
Open AccessArticle

The Impact of the Electric Vehicle Transition on U.S. Grid Infrastructure and Energy Policy

Alec J. Ernst1, , Cooper R. Wade1, David G. Dyer1, Daniel K. Boakye Danquah1 and Olusegun S. Tomomewo1

1University of North Dakota, College of Engineering & Mines, Energy Studies, Grand Forks, US

Pub. Date: February 02, 2023
View Full Text Full Text PDF (628 KB) Full Text ePUB(1066 KB)

Cite this paper:
Alec J. Ernst, Cooper R. Wade, David G. Dyer, Daniel K. Boakye Danquah and Olusegun S. Tomomewo. The Impact of the Electric Vehicle Transition on U.S. Grid Infrastructure and Energy Policy. American Journal of Energy Research. 2023; 11(1):1-14. doi: 10.12691/ajer-11-1-1

Abstract

Vehicles have become a necessity to modern life, with ICEVs continuing to dominate the industry. The vast infrastructure surrounding ICEVs allows for reliable transportation. Recently, priorities have shifted to climate change becoming a top agenda. At the same time electric vehicle technology has advanced to emerging into the market at a reasonable price, with increased safety and reliability. Limitations surrounding the deployment of EV technology at market scale, is the capability of the current infrastructure, technology, cost, and the end user assuming technology accountability without incentive. In this study, the impact on electric vehicle technology, the advancement of Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) batteries, and its impact on the grid will be analyzed for use in the United States at a large scale for grid readiness. Three key areas will be examined to bridge the gap between the current state of Li-ion battery EV technology and grid infrastructure and where this technology needs to meet future demand. These areas include understanding the driving factors for the need to change to e-mobility. The second is to identify and examine the roadmap linking Li-ion technology to grid design and recommendation for resolving the negative impact on grid infrastructure. The third is to evaluate the pathway forward in emerging Li-ion battery storage and technology to meet consumer needs. Results of this study show the benefits of transitioning the transportation market from ICEV to EV is considered favorable.

Keywords:
energy efficiency sustainability grid infrastructure electric vehicles policy charging and discharging internal combustion engine lithium-ion batteries

Creative CommonsThis work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

Figures

Figure of 6

References:

[1]  Khizir Mahmud, Graham E., Town, Sayidul Morsalin, M.J Hossain, Integration of electric vehicles and management on the internet of energy. Sustainable Energy systems group, School of engineering, NSW 2109, Australia. https://ideas.repec.org/a/eee/rensus/v49y2015icp365-385.html.
 
[2]  Yong JY, Ramachandaramurthy VK, Tan KM, Mithulananthan N. A review on the state-of-the-art technologies of electric vehicles, its impacts, and prospects. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015; 49: 365-85.
 
[3]  Vehicle Technologies Office. 22 November 2013. Internal Combustion Engine Basics. Energy.gov. https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/internal-combustion-engine-basics.
 
[4]  Carlier, Mathilde. 21 January 2022. Vehicles in operation in the United States - statistics & facts. Statista. https://www.statista.com/statistics/859950/vehicles-in-operation-by-quarter-united-states/.
 
[5]  American Petroleum Institute. 2022. Service Station FAQs. www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas/consumer-information/consumer-resources/service-station-faqs.
 
[6]  Vehicle Technologies Office. 17 January 2022. Model Year 2021 All-Electric Vehicles Had a Median Driving Range about 60% That of Gasoline Powered Vehicles. Energy.gov.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/fotw-1221-january-17-2022-model-year-2021-all-electric-vehicles-had-median.
 
[7]  Egan, Teague. 24 February 2022. Why is the Lithium-Ion Battery the Best Battery? EnergyX. https://energyx.com/blog/why-is-the-lithium-ion-battery-the-best-battery/.
 
[8]  Plug-in electric vehicles (PEV) [cited 2018 March 3,]; Available from: http://www.newlook.dteenergy.com/wps/wcm/connect/dte-web/home/service-request/residential/electric/pev/plug-in-electric-vehicles-pev; 2023.
 
[9]  Li C-T, et al. Integration of plug-in electric vehicle charging and wind energy scheduling on the electricity grid. In: Innovative smart grid technologies (ISGT). 2012 IEEE PES; 2012. IEEE.
 
[10]  Qian, K., Zhou, C., Allan, M., & Yuan, Y. (2011). Modeling of load demand due to EV battery charging in distribution systems. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 26(2), 802-810.
 
[11]  EIA. 2022. Petroleum & Other Liquids. U.S. Energy Information Agency. https://www.eia.gov/dnav/pet/hist/LeafHandler.ashx?n=pet&s=emm_epmr_pte_nus_dpg&f=m.
 
[12]  Levi, Michael. Do Gasoline Based Cars Really Use More Electricity than Electric Vehicles Do. Council on Foreign Relations. https://www.cfr.org/blog/do-gasoline-based-cars-really-use-more-electricity-electric-vehicles-do.
 
[13]  Nick Bunkley (2010-11-22). “Nissan Says Its Electric Leaf Gets Equivalent of 99 mpg (miles/gal, miles per gallon)”. The New York Times. Retrieved 2011-02-17.
 
[14]  Marsh, Jacob. 2022. How many watts does an electric car charger use? EnergySage. https:// news.energysage.com/how-many-watts-does-an-electric-car-charger-use/.
 
[15]  INL. Advanced Vehicle Testing Activity. Idaho National Laboratory. https://avt.inl.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/fsev/costs.pdf.
 
[16]  Vehicle Technologies Office. 17 January 2022. Model Year 2021 All-Electric Vehicles Had a Median Driving Range about 60% That of Gasoline Powered Vehicles. Energy.gov.https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/fotw-1221-january-17-2022-model-year-2021-all-electric-vehicles-had-median.
 
[17]  Substances & Technologies. 2022. Bearings in internal combustion engines. https://substech.com/dokuwiki/doku.php?id=bearings_in_internal_combustion_engines.
 
[18]  Azadfar E, Sreeram V, Harries D. The investigation of the major factors influencing plug-in electric vehicle driving patterns and charging behavior. Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2015; 42: 1065-76.
 
[19]  EV Technology. 3 August 2019. Let’s get to know about the electric vehicle power-train. https://bijliwaligaadi.com/08/2019/lets-get-to-know-about-the-electric-vehicle-power-train.html/.
 
[20]  Vehicle Technologies Office. 22 November 2013. Internal Combustion Engine Basics. Energy.gov. https://www.energy.gov/eere/vehicles/articles/internal-combustion-engine-basics.
 
[21]  Joyce, Matt. 2023. EV “core efficiency” comparison model. Http://twitter.com/matty_mogul/status/1143998870281699328/photo/1.
 
[22]  American Petroleum Institute. 2022. Service Station FAQs. www.api.org/oil-and-natural-gas/consumer-information/consumer-resources/service-station-faqs.
 
[23]  U.S. Energy information Administration. (2022). U.S. energy facts explained. https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/us-energy-facts/#:~:text=Download%20image%20U.S.%20primary%20energy,natural%20gas%2032%25%20 petroleum%2036%25.
 
[24]  Al-Hanahi, B., Ahmad, I., Habibi, D., & Masoum, M. A. S. (2021). Charging Infrastructure for Commercial Electric Vehicles: Challenges and Future Works. IEEE Access, 9, 121476-121492.
 
[25]  Khoo, Y. B., Wang, C.-H., Paevere, P., & Higgins, A. (2014). Statistical modeling of Electric Vehicle electricity consumption in the Victorian EV Trial, Australia. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 32, 263-277.
 
[26]  Kim, J. D. (2019). Insights into residential EV charging behavior using energy meter data. Energy Policy, 129, 610-618.
 
[27]  Gerossier, A., Girard, R., & Kariniotakis, G. (2019). Modeling and Forecasting Electric Vehicle Consumption Profiles. Energies (19961073), 12(7), 1341-1341.
 
[28]  Amara-Ouali, Y., Goude, Y., Massart, P., Poggi, J.-M., & Yan, H. (2021). A Review of Electric Vehicle Load Open Data and Models. Energies, 14(8), Article 8.
 
[29]  Yilmaz, M., & Krein, P. T. (2013). Review of the Impact of Vehicle-to-Grid Technologies on Distribution Systems and Utility Interfaces. IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, 28(12), 5673-5689.
 
[30]  İnci, M., Savrun, M. M., & Çelik, Ö. (2022). Integrating electric vehicles as virtual power plants: A comprehensive review on vehicle-to-grid (V2G) concepts, interface topologies, marketing and future prospects. Journal of Energy Storage, 55, 105579.
 
[31]  Ford Motor Company. (n.d.). 2023 Ford F-150 Lightning® | Onboard Generator with Intelligent Backup Power. Ford Motor Company. Retrieved December 31, 2022, from https://www.ford.com/trucks/f150/f150-lightning/2023/features/intelligent-backup-power/.
 
[32]  San Diego Gas and Electric Co [SDGE]. (2020). Electric Distribution Design Manual. https://www.sdge.com/sites/default/files/DM%20%281%29.pdf.
 
[33]  Alternative Fuels Data Center [AFDC]. (2022). Alternative Fuels Data Center: Developing Infrastructure to Charge Electric Vehicles. https://afdc.energy.gov/fuels/electricity_infrastructure.html.
 
[34]  López, K. L., Gagné, C., & Gardner, M.-A. (2019). Demand-Side Management Using Deep Learning for Smart Charging of Electric Vehicles. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 10(3), 2683-2691.
 
[35]  Mu, Y., Wu, J., Jenkins, N., Jia, H., & Wang, C. (2014). A Spatial–Temporal model for grid impact analysis of plug-in electric vehicles. Applied Energy, 114, 456-465.
 
[36]  Qian, K., Zhou, C., Allan, M., & Yuan, Y. (2011). Modeling of Load Demand Due to EV Battery Charging in Distribution Systems. IEEE Transactions on Power Systems, 26(2), 802-810.
 
[37]  Alizadeh, M., Scaglione, A., Davies, J., & Kurani, K. S. (2014). A Scalable Stochastic Model for the Electricity Demand of Electric and Plug-In Hybrid Vehicles. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 5(2), 848-860.
 
[38]  Xu, N. Z., & Chung, C. Y. (2015). Challenges in Future Competition of Electric Vehicle Charging Management and Solutions. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 6(3), 1323-1331.
 
[39]  Jiang, H., Ren, H., Sun, C., & Watts, D. (2017). The temporal-spatial stochastic model of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. 2017 IEEE PES Innovative Smart Grid Technologies Conference Europe (ISGT-Europe), 1-6.
 
[40]  U.S. Department of Transportation [USDOT]. (2022, May 31). Average Annual Miles per Driver by Age Group. https://www.fhwa.dot.gov/ohim/onh00/bar8.htm.
 
[41]  Gallo, J.-B. (2016). Electric Truck & Bus Grid Integration, Opportunities, Challenges & Recommendations. World Electric Vehicle Journal, 8(1), Article 1.
 
[42]  Dharmakeerthi, C. H., Mithulananthan, N., & Saha, T. K. (2014). Impact of electric vehicle fast charging on power system voltage stability. International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems, 57, 241-249.
 
[43]  Schmidt, J., Eisel, M., & Kolbe, L. M. (2014). Assessing the potential of different charging strategies for electric vehicle fleets in closed transport systems. Energy Policy, 74, 179-189.
 
[44]  Parker, T., & Naberezhnykh, D. (2013). Charging point strategies for electric commercial vehicles. IET Hybrid and Electric Vehicles Conference 2013 (HEVC 2013), 1-4.
 
[45]  Saldaña, G., San Martín, J. I., Asensio, F. J., Zamora, I., Oñederra, O., & González-Pérez, M. (2020). Commercial Electric Vehicle Battery Degradation modeling and charging assessing using a real driving cycle. Renewable Energy and Power Quality Journal, 18, 315-320.
 
[46]  Krallmann, T., Doering, M., Stess, M., Graen, T., & Nolting, M. (2018). Multi-objective optimization of charging infrastructure to improve suitability of commercial drivers for electric vehicles using real travel data. 2018 IEEE Conference on Evolving and Adaptive Intelligent Systems (EAIS), 1-8.
 
[47]  Nie, Y. (Marco), & Ghamami, M. (2013). A corridor-centric approach to planning electric vehicle charging infrastructure. Transportation Research Part B: Methodological, 57, 172-190.
 
[48]  Yang, H., Yang, S., Xu, Y., Cao, E., Lai, M., & Dong, Z. (2015). Electric Vehicle Route Optimization Considering Time-of-Use Electricity Price by Learnable Partheno-Genetic Algorithm. IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid, 6(2), 657-666.
 
[49]  Lee, H., & Clark, A. (2018). Charging the Future: Challenges and Opportunities for Electric Vehicle Adoption. SSRN Electronic Journal.
 
[50]  Dong, J., Liu, C., & Lin, Z. (2014). Charging infrastructure planning for promoting battery electric vehicles: An activity-based approach using multi day travel data. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, 38, 44-55.
 
[51]  Henze, V. (October 12, 2022). Global Energy Storage Market to Grow 15-Fold by 2030. Bloomberg NEF. https://about.bnef.com/blog/global-energy-storage-market-to-grow-15-fold-by-2030/#:~:text=New%20York%2C%20 October%2012%2C%202022,research%20company%20BloombergNEF%20(BNEF).
 
[52]  Wallbox. (n.d.). 9 Leading EV Influencers Discuss The Innovations That Will Shape The Future Of Electric Cars. https://blog.wallbox.com/en-usa/9-leading-ev-influencers-discuss-the-innovations-that-will-shape-the-future-of-electric-cars/.
 
[53]  Mackinac Center for Public Policy. (n.d.). What Is Public Policy and Why Is It Important?. https://www.mackinac.org/1542.
 
[54]  U.S. Department of Transportation. (n.d.). Community Benefits of Rural Vehicle Electrification. https://www.transportation.gov/rural/ev/toolkit/ev-benefits-and-challenges/community-benefits#:~:text=Battery%20electric%20 vehicles%20run%20with,businesses%20and%20 provide%20health%20 benefits.
 
[55]  U.S. Energy information Administration. (2022). U.S. energy facts explained. https://www.eia.gov/energyexplained/us-energy-facts/#:~:text=Download%20image%20U.S.%20primary%20energy,natural%20gas%2032%25%20 petroleum%2036%25.
 
[56]  Rubio-Licht, N., & Roach, S. (October 12, 2022). Here are the main electric vehicle goals set by automakers and major markets: Companies and countries alike are promising an EV revolution over the next decade. Protocol. https://www.protocol.com/climate/electric-vehicle-automaker-goals.
 
[57]  Trotta, D., & Shepardson, D. (September 8, 2021). New York sets 2035 zero-emission passenger car goal. Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/us/new-york-sets-2035-zero-emission-passenger-car-goal-2021-09-09/.
 
[58]  Clegern, D., & Young, S. (August 5, 2022). California moves to accelerate to 100% new zero-emission vehicle sales by 2035: CARB approves first-in-nation ZEV regulation that will clean the air, slash climate pollution, and save consumers money. California Air Resources Board. https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/news/california-moves-accelerate-100-new-zero-emission-vehicle-sales-2035#:~:text=The%20 rule%20 establishes%20a%20 year,plug%2 Din%20 hybrid%20 electric%20 vehicles.
 
[59]  McGee, J. (April 27, 2021). The history and impact of incentive programs. Cultivate. https://blog.cultivatepcg.com/blog/the-history-and-impact-of-incentive-programs.
 
[60]  Johnson, J. (December 19, 2011). Long History Of U.S. Energy Subsidies: Report shows centuries of government support for fossil fuels, much less for renewable energy. Chemical and Engineering News. https://cen.acs.org/articles/89/i51/Long-History-US-Energy-Subsidies.html.
 
[61]  Nuclear Energy Institute. (May, 2017). Analysis of U.S. Energy Incentives, 1950-2016. https://www.nei.org/resources/reports-briefs/analysis-of-us-energy-incentives-1950-2016.
 
[62]  Senate Committee on Energy & Natural Resources. (August 12, 2022). House Passes Manchin's Inflation Reduction Act. https://www.energy.senate.gov/2022/8/house-passes-manchin-s-inflation-reduction-act#: ~:text=%E2%80%9CToday%20the%20U.S.%20House%20of,raising%20costs%20for%20working%20Americans.
 
[63]  U.S. Department of Energy: Energy Efficiency & Renewable Energy. (2022). Electric Vehicles with Final Assembly in North America. https://afdc.energy.gov/laws/electric-vehicles-for-tax-credit#/tab-2023.
 
[64]  Internal Revenue Service. (n.d.). Credits for New Clean Vehicles Purchased in 2023 or After. https://www.irs.gov/credits-deductions/credits-for-new-clean-vehicles-purchased-in-2023-or-after.
 
[65]  Taylor, K. (January 5, 2023). 2023 EV Tax Credit Explained: What's Changed and What’s Ahead: Which vehicles qualify for the federal electric vehicle tax credit has changed for 2023 because of the Inflation Reduction Act. Kiplinger. https://www.kiplinger.com/taxes/605081/ev-tax-credit-inflation-reduction-act-2022-changes.
 
[66]  Wakefield, C. (October 28, 2022). Electric Car Rebates and Incentives: What to Know by State. Kelley Blue Book. https://www.kbb.com/car-advice/electric-vehicle-rebates-by-state/#:~:text=2%20charging%20station.,Arkansas,Level%202%20EV%20charging%20station.
 
[67]  New York State. (September 29, 2022). Governor Hochul Drives Forward New York's Transition to Clean Transportation. https://www.governor.ny.gov/news/governor-hochul-drives-forward-new-yorks-transition-clean-transportation#:~:text=Enshrined%20into%20law%20through%20the,reach%20economy%20wide%20 carbon%20 neutrality.
 
[68]  United States Department of Energy: Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability. (2015). United States Electricity Industry Primer. https://www.energy.gov/sites/prod/files/2015/12/f28/united-states-electricity-industry-primer.pdf.
 
[69]  Metzger, L. (March 4, 2021). Can I power my house with an electric car?: Vehicle to home technology could help keep the lights on. Environment Texas: Research and Policy Center. https://environmentamerica.org/texas/resources/can-i-power-my-house-with-an-electric-car/#:~:text=Electric%20car%20 batteries%20can%20hold, and%20can%20provide%20more%20powe.
 
[70]  Hedges & Company. (n.d.). US VEHICLE REGISTRATION STATISTICS: How many cars are there in the US? How many vehicles in the US and other vehicle registration statistics. https://hedgescompany.com/automotive-market-research-statistics/auto-mailing-lists-and-marketing/.
 
[71]  Congressional Research Service. (August 23, 2022). Electricity Transmission Provisions in the Inflation Reduction Act of 2022. https://crsreports.congress.gov/product/pdf/IN/IN11981
 
[72]  International Energy Agency [IEA]. (2022). Grid Integration of Electric Vehicles—A manual for policy makers. https://iea.blob.core.windows.net/assets/21fe1dcb-c7ca-4e32-91d4-928715c9d14b/GridIntegrationofElectricVehicles.pdf.
 
[73]  Luthander, R., Shepero, M., Munkhammar, J., & Widén, J. (2019). Photovoltaics and opportunistic electric vehicle charging in the power system – a case study on a Swedish distribution grid. IET Renewable Power Generation, 13(5), 710-716.
 
Manuscript template