Strategy Instruction for Macao EFL Students

Mei Lan Chan^1,

¹School of Health Sciences, Macao Polytechnic Institute, Macao

Cite this paper:
Mei Lan Chan. Strategy Instruction for Macao EFL Students. American Journal of Educational Research. 2014; 2(11):990-1004. doi: 10.12691/education-2-11-1

Abstract

Strategy Instruction (SI) has been in much debate on its effectiveness on students’ language learning strategies (LLS) use, proficiency and the four main English skills (speaking, listening, writing and reading). In addition, most research studies on SI focus on one main English skill and train students with one or a few groups of LLS. Still fewer research has looked into the details of changes (or students’ learning processes) using diaries. This research used an embedded mixed methods quasi-experimental design to collect in-depth data to assess the effectiveness of SI on higher education nursing students’ changes of LLS, English achievement and learning processes. These quantitative and qualitative methods included questionnaires, group interviews, diaries, pre- and post-tests and class observations. One treatment group and one comparison group, a total of 59 university freshmen in Macao SAR participated in this study. All six groups of LLS (memory-related, cognitive, compensatory, metacognitive, affective and social) were taught and their effects on all four main English skills were discussed. Quantitatively, two groups (affective and compensatory) of LLS use and qualitatively, the learning processes of students had been improved after SI but no improvement was obtained in students’ achievement from the Oxford Placement Tests quantitatively. In this study, recommendations are made for utilizing SI in improving LLS in EFL.

Keywords:
strategy instruction language learning strategies EFL students

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

References:

[1]	Oxford, R. L., Griffiths, C., Longhini, A., Cohen, A. D., Macaro, E., and Harris, V., “Experts’ personal metaphors and similes about language learning strategies,” System, 43, 11-29, 2014.
[2]	Abraham, R. G., and Vann, R. J., “Strategies of two language learners: A case study,” in A. Wenden & J. Rubin (Eds.), Learner strategies in language learning, Englewood Cliffs, NY: Prentice/Hall International, 1987, 85-102.
[3]	Chamot, A. U., and El-Dinary, P. B., “Children’s learning strategies in language immersion classrooms,” The Modern Language Journal, 83, 319-338, 1999.
[4]	Radwan, A. A., “Effects of proficiency and gender on choice of strategies by university students majoring in English,” The Asian EFL Journal, 13 (1), 114-162, 2011.
[5]	Cohen, A. D., Strategies in learning and using a second language. London: Longman, 1998.
[6]	Lee, K. R., and Oxford, R., “Understanding EFL learners’ strategy use and strategy awareness,” The Asian EFL Journal, 10 (1), 7-32, 2008.
[7]	Jurkovič, V., “Effect of strategy based instruction on achievement test scores in a mixed language ability group of ESP learners,” Ibérica, 25, 195-214, 2013.
[8]	Plonsky, L., “The effectiveness of second language strategy instruction: A meta-analysis,” Language Learning, 61, 993-1038, 2011.
[9]	Rao, Z., “Training in brainstorming and developing writing skills,” ELT Journal, 60, 100-106, 2007.
[10]	Shen, C., and Song, J., “Oral English learning strategy training for adult learners in open education,” Distance Education in China, 8, 52-57, 2011.
[11]	Chen, Y., “Learning to learn: The impact of strategy training,” English Language Teaching Journal, 61, 20-29, 2007.
[12]	Nunan, D., “Does learner strategy training make a difference?” Lenguas Modernas, 24, 123-142, 1997.
[13]	Oxford, R. L, Teaching and researching language learning strategies, Harlow, England: Longman, 2011.
[14]	Yang, N-D., “Integrating portfolios into learning strategy-based instruction for EFL college students,” IRAL, 41, 293-317, 2003.
[15]	Cohen, A. D., Language learning: Insights for learners, teachers and researchers, Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 1990.
[16]	Grenfell, M., and Harris, V., Modern languages and learning strategies: In theory and practice, London: Routledge, 1999.
[17]	Chamot, A. U., Kupper, L., and Interstate Research Associates, VA., “Learning strategies in foreign language instruction,” Foreign Language Annals, 22, 13-21, 1989.
[18]	Chamot, A. U., and O’Malley, J. M., “Language learner and learning strategies,” in N. C. Ellis (Ed.), Implicit and explicit learning of languages, London: Academic, 1994, 371-392.
[19]	Cohen, A. D., and Weaver, S. J., “Strategies-based instruction for second language learners,” in W. A. Renandya & G. M. Jacobs (Eds.), Learners and language learning: Anthology series 39, Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Center, 1998, 1-25.
[20]	Dadour, E. S., & Robbins, J., “University-level studies using strategy instruction to improve speaking ability in Egypt and Japan,” in R. L. Oxford (Ed.), Language learning strategies around the world: Cross-cultural perspectives, Manoa: University of Hawai’i Press, 1996, 157-166.
[21]	Jabbari, M. J., and Sadeghi, R., “The effect of learning strategies on the speaking ability of Iranian students in the context of language institutes,” Asian Journal of Education and e-Learning, 2, 83-88, 2014.
[22]	Carrier, K. A., “Improving high school English language learners’ second language listening through strategy instruction,” Bilingual Research Journal, 27, 383-408, 2003.
[23]	Cross, J., “Effects of listening strategy instruction on news videotext comprehension,” Language Teaching Research, 13, 151-176, 2009.
[24]	Fahim, M., and Fakhri Akamdari, E., “Exploring the effect of the model of metacognitive instruction on the listening performance of EFL learners,” International Journal of Research Studies in Language Learning, 3 (6), 3-20, 2014.
[25]	Movahed, R., “The effect of metacognitive strategy instruction on listening performance, metacognitive awareness and listening anxiety of beginner Iranian EFL students,” International Journal of English Linguistics, 4 (2), 88-99, 2014.
[26]	Siegel, J., “Second language learners’ perceptions of listening strategy instruction,” Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 7, 1-18, 2013.
[27]	Vandergrift, L., “Facilitating second language listening comprehension: Acquiring successful strategies,” ELT Journal, 53, 168-176, 1999.
[28]	Bishop, G., “Using quality and accuracy ratings to quantify the value added of a dictionary skills training course,” Language Learning Journal, 24, 62-69, 2001.
[29]	Ching, L. C., “Strategy and self-regulation instruction as contributors to improving students’ cognitive model in an ESL program,” English for Specific Purposes, 21, 261-289, 2002.
[30]	Cresswell, A., “Self-monitoring in student writing: Developing learner responsibility,” ELT Journal, 54, 235-244, 2000.
[31]	de Larios, J. R., Murphy, L., and Manchon, R., “The use of restructuring strategies in EFL writing: A study of Spanish learners of English as a Foreign Language,” Journal of Second Language Writing, 8, 13-44, 1999.
[32]	Mohseniasl, F., “Examining the effect of strategy instruction on writing apprehension and writing achievement of EFL learners,” Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4, 811-817, 2014.
[33]	Nguyen, L. T. C., and Gu, Y., “Strategy-based instruction: A learner-focused approach to developing learner autonomy,” Language Teaching Research, 17, 9-30, 2013.
[34]	Winer, L., “Spinach to chocolate: Changing awareness and attitudes in ESL writing teachers,” TESOL Quarterly, 26, 57-80, 1992.
[35]	Aghaie, R., and Zhang, L. J., “Effects of explicit instruction in cognitive and metacognitive reading strategies on Iranian EFL students’ reading performance and strategy transfer,” Instructional Science, 40, 1063-1081, 2012.
[36]	Akkakoson, S., “The relationship between strategic reading instruction, student learning of L2-based reading strategies and L2 reading achievement,” Journal of Research in Reading, 36, 422-450, 2013.
[37]	Dabaghi, A., and Akvan, M., “Explore the relationship between strategy use and ESP reading test performance of two university majors (humanities vs. science),” Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 4, 121-128, 2014.
[38]	Motallebzadeh, K., and Mamdoohi, N., “Language learning strategies: A key factor to improvement of TOEFL candidates’ reading comprehension ability,” International Journal of Linguistics, 3 (1), 1-11, 2011.
[39]	Chen, Y-D., “On training of English majors’ metacognitive language learning strategies,” Journal of Hunan University of Science & Technology (Social Science Edition), 14 (1), 114-117, 2011.
[40]	Ouyang, J-P., and Zhang, J-J., “Training affective strategies for college English learners,” Journal of PLA University of Foreign Languages, 31 (2), 45-51, 2008.
[41]	Peng, M., “An empirical study on the effectiveness of language learning strategy training for Chinese adult English learners,” Sino-US English Teaching, 10 (1), 41-52, 2013.
[42]	Qi, C., and Yu, O., “Language strategy training for unsuccessful university learners,” Modern Education Science, 2, 73-76, 2008.
[43]	Shan, S-K., and Gu, X., “A study of metacognitive strategy training for less successful non-English majors in universities,” Shandong Foreign Language Teaching Journal, 3, 77-83, 2008.
[44]	Wang, Z-M., “An experimental study on metacognitive strategy training of English self-access learning,” Journal of Chengde Petroleum College, 10 (4), 69-74, 2008.
[45]	Wang, L-Q., Lin, H., and Li, D-F., “A report on learning strategies training in college English teaching,” Journal of Honghe University, 5 (3), 89-93, 2007.
[46]	Oxford, R. L., “Research on second language learning strategies,” Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 13, 175-187, 1993.
[47]	Chamot, A. U., and Rubin, J., “Comments on Janie Rees-Miller’s ‘a critical appraisal of learner training: Theoretical bases and teaching implications’ two readers react…,” TESOL Quarterly, 28, 771-776, 1994.
[48]	Chan, M. L., “Language learning strategies of Macao nursing students: An embedded mixed methods study,” Asian Englishes, 16 (3), 1-20, 2014.
[49]	Nunan, D., “Learner strategy training in the classroom: An action research study,” TESOL Journal, 6, 35-41, 1996.
[50]	Zhang, L. J., “Constructivist pedagogy in strategic reading instruction: Exploring pathways to learner development in the English as a second language (ESL) classrooms,” Instructional Science: An International Journal of the Learning Sciences, 36, 89-116, 2008.
[51]	O’Malley, J. M., and Chamot, A. U., Learning strategies in second language acquisition, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1990.
[52]	Wang, L., “An experiment on teaching of communication strategies to Chinese EFL learner,” Foreign Language Teaching and Research, 34, 426-430, 2002.
[53]	Su, Y-L., “On the teachability of listening learning strategies: An empirical study on Chinese EFL beginners,” Modern Foreign Language, 26 (1), 48-58, 2003.
[54]	Tan, C., and Chen, X., “University English listening strategy training,” Master, 17, 147-148, 2012.
[55]	Zhang, O., “English listening cognitive and metacognitive strategies training in Chinese university students,” Journal of Social Science of Hunan Medical University, 10 (2), 203-205, 2008.
[56]	Zhao, H., and Chang, L., “Empirical study of fostering learning strategies in college English listening course,” Teaching English in China, 29 (3), 98-105, 2006.
[57]	Gan, L-H., “An experimental study on metacognitive strategy training in English writing,” Journal of Shaoguan University (Social Science), 30 (7), 127-132, 2009.
[58]	Miao, G., “Research on the relationship between metacognitive strategies and college English writing,” Journal of Changchun University of Science and Technology (Social Sciences Edition), 22, 841-842, 2009.
[59]	Tan, X., and Wei, L., “Learning strategies training for non-English majors,” Foreign Language World, 92 (6), 19-23, 2002.
[60]	Wu, Y., “A probe into a college English reading teaching model based on strategy training,” Journal of Jiangxi Vocational and Technical College of Electricity, 24 (3), 78-81, 2011.
[61]	Oxford, R. L., “The Strategies Inventory for Language Learning (SILL),” Version 5.1 (Version for English speakers learning a new language), 1989, in R. L. Oxford, Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know, Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 1990, 283-288.
[62]	Li, Y., and Zhao, L., “The English listening strategy utilization investigation in Chinese medicines school student,” Journal of Henan University of Chinese Medicine, 143, 105-106, 2009.
[63]	Gao, L., Chen, T., and Cheng, X., “A longitudinal study on the effect of learning strategy training on learners’ metacognition,” Foreign Language World, 148, 35-43, 2012.
[64]	Li, Z., “An empirical study on strategies-based instruction,” Journal of Tianjin Foreign Studies University, 14 (4), 76-80, 2007.
[65]	Shen, J-J., “Training of autodidactic study metacognition strategy of college English,” Journal of Luoyang Normal University, 31 (3), 107-109, 2012.
[66]	Cheng, B., “Effects of strategy instruction on university English learning strategies,” Journal of Xian International Studies University, 14 (3), 48-50, 2006.
[67]	Bosher, S., “English for nursing: Developing discipline-specific materials,” in N. Harwood (Ed.), English language teaching materials: Theory and practice, New York: Cambridge University Press, 2010, 346-394.
[68]	Brown, H. D., A practical guide to language learning: A fifteen-week program of strategies for success, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989.
[69]	Chamot, A. U., Keatley, C., Meloni, C. F., Gonglewski, M., and Bartoshesky, A., Developing autonomy in language learners: Learning strategy instruction in higher education, Washington, DC: National Capital Language Resource Center, 2010. [Online]. Available: http://nclrc.org/guides/HED/pdfs/full.pdf. [Accessed Apr. 15, 2013].
[70]	Richards, J. C., Interchange student’s book 3, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007.
[71]	Lichtman, M., Qualitative research in education: A user’s guide, (3rded.), Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2013.
[72]	Marshall, C., and Rossman, G. B., Designing qualitative research, (5thed.), Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2011.
[73]	Denscombe, M., Good research guide: For small-scale social research projects, Berkshire, GBR: McGraw-Hill Professional Publishing, 2010.
[74]	Oxford, R. L., Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know, Boston, MA: Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 1990.
[75]	Oxford, R. L., “Language learning styles and strategies,” in M. Celce-Murcia (Ed.), Teaching English as a second or foreign Language, Australia: Heinle & Heinle, 2001, 359-366.
[76]	Allan, D., Oxford placement test (1 or 2), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.
[77]	Bailey, K., “Dairy studies of classroom language learning: The doubting game and the believing game,” in E. Sadtano (Ed.), Language acquisition and the second/foreign language classroom, Singapore: SEAMEO Regional Language Centre, 1991, 60-102.
[78]	Matsumoto, K., “Helping L2 learners reflect on classroom learning,” ELT Journal, 50, 143-149, 1996.
[79]	Oxford, R. L., Lavine, R. Z., Felkins, G., Hollaway, M. E., and Saleh, A., “Telling their stories: Language students use diaries and recollection,” in R. L. Oxford (Ed.), Language learning strategies around the world: Cross-cultural perspectives, Manoa: University of Hawai’i Press, 1996, 19-34.
[80]	Cohen, L., Manion, L., and Morrison, K., Research methods in education (7th ed.), New York: Routledge, 2011.
[81]	Cohen, A. D., Styles and strategies-based instruction, Center for advanced research on language acquisition (CARLA), 2009. [Online]. Available: http://www.carla.umn.edu/strategies/SBIinfo.html. [Accessed Mar. 23, 2013].
[82]	Dörnyei, Z., “Individual differences in second language acquisition,” AILA Review, 19, 42-68, 2006.
[83]	Dörnyei, Z., “Individual differences: Interplay of learner characteristics and learning environment,” Language Learning, 59(s1), 230-248, 2009.
[84]	Green, J., and Oxford, R., “A closer look at learning strategies, L2 proficiency, and gender,” TESOL Quarterly, 29, 261-297, 1995.
[85]	Oxford, R. L., and Nyikos, M., “Variables affecting choice of language learning strategies by university students,” The Modern Language Journal, 73, 291-300, 1989.
[86]	Rossi-Le, L., “Learning styles and strategies in adult immigrant ESL students,” in J. M. Reid (Ed.), Learning styles in the ESL/EFL classroom, New York: Heinle & Heinle Publishers, 1995, 118-125.
[87]	Zhong, Q., “The beliefs and learner strategy use of low-proficiency Chinese learners and their impact on learning English in a New Zealand context,” Unpublished PhD thesis, The University of Auckland, New Zealand, 2012.
[88]	Rossiter, M., “The effects of affective strategy training in the ESL classroom,” Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, 7 (2), 1-20, 2003.
[89]	Chamot, A.U., “Strategy instruction and good language learners,” in C. Griffiths (Ed.), Lessons from good language learners, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008, 266-281.
[90]	Li, J., and Qin, X. Q., “Language learning styles and strategies of tertiary -level English learners in China,” RELC Journal, 37, 67-89, 2006.
[91]	Oxford, R. L., Crookall, D., Cohen, A., Lavine, R., Nyikos, M., and Sutter, W., “Strategy training for language learners: Six training case studies and a training model,” Foreign Language Annals, 23, 197-216, 1990.
[92]	Oxford, R. L., Rubin, J., Chamot, A. U., Schramm, K., Lavine, R., Gunning, P., and Nel, C., “The learning strategy prism: Perspectives of learning strategy experts,” System, 43, 30-49, 2014.
[93]	Cohen, A. D., Strategies in learning and using a second language, New York: Pearson, 2011.
[94]	Oxford, R. L., “Use of language learning strategies: A synthesis of studies with implications for strategy training,” System, 17, 235-247, 1989.
[95]	Jurkovič, V., “Effect of explicit language learning strategy instruction on language-test and self-assessment scores,” English Language Teaching, 3 (1), 16-27, 2010.
[96]	Brown, J. D., Testing in language programs, New York: McGraw-Hill, 2005.