Community Schooling System in Zambia: Its Evolution and Stakeholder Perspectives

Silangwa Siakalima¹ and Vincent Kanyamuna^2,

¹Ministry of Education, Parklands Secondary School, Chilanga, Lusaka, Zambia

²University of Zambia, Department of Development Studies, Lusaka, Zambia

Cite this paper:
Silangwa Siakalima and Vincent Kanyamuna. Community Schooling System in Zambia: Its Evolution and Stakeholder Perspectives. American Journal of Educational Research. 2022; 10(9):571-578. doi: 10.12691/education-10-9-9

Abstract

Community Schools play an integral part in the provision of formal education in Zambia. In the rural parts of Zambia, these schools were mainly set where there was long distance to the nearest government school, while in urban areas; they were mostly in places with large population of school age children who were unable to find access to a government school for various reasons. This work explores issues related to Community Schools (CS) in Zambia, their origin, existence, operations and how they were perceived by people. A compilation, diagnostic assessment and analysis were employed to conduct this study from existing literature. The results reveal that the concept of community schools originated in the pre-colonial days when they (CS) were known as village schools. While the demand for formal education was low during the colonial days, it skyrocketed after Zambia gained her independence in 1964. The desires of Zambians to find well-paying jobs seem to have accelerated the demand for formal education to the levels that the Zambian government was unable to cope. This motivated Zambian communities to establish community schools. From the time of origin, these schools have undergone various transformations in terms of curriculum, registration processes, management, government aid and collaboration, among others. Further revelations indicate that Community Schools were beset with numerous hardships like lack or dilapidated infrastructure, shortage of qualified teachers, overcrowded classrooms, and shortage of many other school requirements. The Zambian government, churches, donors and other Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) should expand the existing schools and build new ones throughout the country. They (GRZ and other stakeholders) should also consider increasing funding and other support measures to community schools like capacity building teachers in these schools using Continuous Professional Development (CPD) programmes and short funded teaching courses.

Keywords:
community Schools SPARK ZBEC curriculum village schools formal education Zambia

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

References:

[1]	Chondoka, A.Y. & Subulwa, C. (2004). Evaluation of SPARK curriculum in community schools in Zambia. Lusaka: UNICEF.
[2]	DeSfano, J. (2006). Meeting EFA: Zambia community schools. Lusaka: USAID.
[3]	Ministry of Education. (2004). The impact of free basic education on access to education. Lusaka: Author.
[4]	United Nations International Children’s Emergence Fund. (2001). Eastern and Southern African Region Education Newsletter. Nairobi: Author
[5]	Kanyamuna, V. Analysis of Zambia’s Whole-of-Government Monitoring and Evaluation System in the context of National Development Plans. Doctorate Thesis. University of South Africa, 2019.
[6]	Mwansa, D. (1993). A study of community perspectives on participation, motivation, changes and needs in Zambian literacy programmes. Lusaka: University of Zambia.
[7]	Woolfolk, A. (2010). Educational psychology (11th ed.). London: Pearson.
[8]	World Food Programme, (2008). School meals. New York: Author.
[9]	Zambia Community School Secretariat. (2003). Community schools movement in Zambia. Lusaka: Author.
[10]	Shaughnessy, J.J., Zechmeister, B.E., & Zechmeister, S.J. (2006). Research methods in psychology (7th ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.
[11]	Mwanakatwe, J. (1968). The growth of education in Zambia. Oxford: Oxford University press.
[12]	Snelson, P. (1974). Educational development in Northern Rhodesia 1883-1945. Oxford: University press.
[13]	GRZ. Ministry of Finance and National Planning. 2010. Sixth National Development Plan 2011-2015: Sustained Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction. Lusaka: Ministry of Finance and National Planning.
[14]	Mwanakatwe, J.M. (2013). The Growth of Education in Zambia since Independence (Revised Edition). Lusaka: The University of Zambia Press.
[15]	Mwansa, A. (2006). An assessment of the quality and relevancy of educational provision in community schools of Mkushi district. Lusaka: Unpublished.
[16]	Kanyamuna, V., Kotzé, D. A. & Phiri, M. “Monitoring and Evaluation Systems: The Missing Strand in the African Transformational Development Agenda.” World Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 2019. 5(3): 160-175.
[17]	Carmody, B. (1999). Education in Zambia: Catholic perspective. Lusaka: Book world Publishers.
[18]	Kanyamuna, V., Mubita, A., Ng’andu, E., Mizinga, C. & Mwale, A. 2018. An Assessment of the Demand-Side of the Monitoring and Evaluation System of the Health Sector in Zambia. World Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 2018. 4(2): p. 75-86.
[19]	Murray, A.V. (1929). The school in the bush: A critical study of the theory and practice of native education in African schools. London: Longmans, Green and company.
[20]	Tiberondwa, K.A. (1978). Missionary teachers as agents of colonialism. Lusaka: NECZAM.
[21]	GRZ. Ministry of Finance and National Planning (MOF–Zambia). 2013. Report on the Performance of the Sector Advisory Groups (SAGs), Lusaka: Ministry of Finance and National Planning.
[22]	Zambia Monitoring and Evaluation Association. National Evaluation Advocacy and Strategy–2018-2021. Lusaka, 2018.
[23]	United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Orgainsations. (2000). Assessment of basic education in Sub Saharan Africa: 1990 – 2000. Harare: Author.
[24]	Ministry of Education, & Community Health and Nutrition, Gender, and Education Support. (2003). Kalomo District profile: Report on the community sensitization and mobilization campaign by the CHANGES programme in the ministry of education, Zambia. Livingstone: Author.
[25]	Mulonda, M., Kanyamuna, V. & Kanenga, H. 2018. State–Civil Society relationship in Zambia, International Journal of Humanities, Art and Social Studies, 3(4): 17-26.
[26]	GRZ. Ministry of Finance and National Planning. 2006. Fifth National Development Plan 2006-2010: Broad based wealth and job creation through citizenry participation and technological advancement, Lusaka: Ministry of Finance and National Planning.
[27]	Kanyamuna, V., Mumba, M.H., Mkandawire, A., Munalula, M. & Kalonje, V. (2021). “Opportunities and Challenges in Using Information from Zambia’s Government Monitoring and Evaluation System”. World Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, vol. 7, no. 1: 23-33.
[28]	McIntosh, S. (2008). Education and employment in OECD countries. Paris: UNESCO.
[29]	Rosenthal, R. & Rosnow, L.R. (1984). Essential of behavioural research: Methods and data analysis. New York: McGraw Hill.
[30]	Kosslyn, M.S., & Rosenberg, S.R. (2001). Psychology: The brain, the person, the world. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
[31]	Carmody, B. (2004). The evolution of education in Zambia. Lusaka: BP world publishers
[32]	Kelly, M.J. (1999). The origins and development of education in Zambia: From pre colonial times to 1996. Lusaka: Image publishers limited.
[33]	Santrock, W. J. (2004). Educational psychology (2nd ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.
[34]	Kanyamuna, V., Phiri, M., Kanenga, H. & Mulonda, M. (2020). “Role of Actors Outside Government in Strengthening the Country Monitoring and Evaluation System in Zambia.” World Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, vol. 6, no. 1: 22-29.
[35]	United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation. (2007). Zambia National Commission for UNESCO: Annual report (5th ed.). Lusaka: Author
[36]	Chambers, R. 1994. Participatory rural appraisal (PRA): Challenges, potentials, and paradigm. World Dev, 22(1): 1437-1454.
[37]	World Bank. 2012. Improving the Quality of Public Expenditure through the use of Performance Information in Mexico. IEG, The World Bank, Washington, D.C.
[38]	Kanyamuna, V., Mubita, A., Ng’andu, E., Mizinga, C. & Mwale, A. 2018. An Assessment of the Demand-Side of the Monitoring and Evaluation System of the Health Sector in Zambia. World Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 4(2): 75-86.
[39]	Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. New York: General learning press.
[40]	Coolican, H. (2009). Research methods and statistics in psychology (5th ed.). London: Hodder education.
[41]	Cohen, L., & Marion, L. (1980; 2000). Research methods in education. London: sage.
[42]	Passer, W.P. & Smith, E. (2007). Psychology (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill.
[43]	Munsaka, E. (2009). Understanding school dropouts among adolescents in rural site of Southern Zambia. Cape Town: University PhD Thesis.
[44]	Kanyamuna, V. Sector Monitoring and Evaluation Systems in the context of Poverty Reduction Strategies: A comparative case study of Zambia’s Health and Agriculture sectors. MSc–dissertation, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium, 2013.
[45]	Rortberg, R.I. (1965). Christian missionary and creation of Northern Rhodsesia 1880 – 1924. New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
[46]	CARE Zambia. (2005). Global Study on Complementary Models of Education, Zambia Community Schools. Atlanta: CARE U.S.A.
[47]	Ministry of Education. (2004). Free basic education policy implementation assessment. Lusaka: Author
[48]	Kanyamuna, V., Katowa, T., Mubita, A., Kanenga, H., Simui, F., & Kotze, D. A. (2020). Analysis of Structural and Organisational Arrangements of Monitoring And Evaluation Status For The Public Sector In Zambia. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(6) 504-527.
[49]	Ministry of Education. (1996). Educating our future: National policy on education. Lusaka: Zambia Education Publishing House.
[50]	Child, D. (2007). Psychology and the teacher. (8th ed.). New York: Continuum.
[51]	Funder, D. (2004). The personality puzzle (3rd ed.). New York: W.W. Norton and Company.
[52]	Hamwaka, K. (2000). Girl self guide life skills: Psychosocial. Lusaka: Mwajionera enterprises.
[53]	Berger, K.S. (1986). The developing person through childhood and adolescence (2nd ed.). New York: Worthy publishers Inc.
[54]	Kemp, A. (2008). Primary Education in Zambia. The Hague: UNICEF.
[55]	Mubita, A., Mulonda, M., Libati, M., Mwale, N. & Kanyamuna, V. Urban Informality and Small Scale Enterprise (SME) Development in Zambia: An Exploration of Theory and Practice, Journal of Behavioural Economics, Finance, Entrepreneurship, Accounting and Transport, 2017. 5(1): p.19-29.
[56]	Mulonda, M., Kanyamuna, V. & Kanenga, H. State–Civil Society relationship in Zambia, International Journal of Humanities, Art and Social Studies, 2018. 3(4): p. 17-26.
[57]	GRZ. Ministry of Finance and National Planning. 2002. Zambia poverty reduction strategy paper (2002–2004), March 2002. Lusaka: Ministry of Finance and National Planning.
[58]	Kasonde – Ng’andu, S. (2007). The loss of parents, academic performance and psychosocial adjustment of grade five children in Zambia. Lusaka: University of Zambia PhD Thesis.
[59]	GRZ. Ministry of Finance and National Planning. 2009. Mid-Term Review of the Fifth National Development Plan 2006-2010: Broad based wealth and job creation through citizenry participation and technological advancement. Lusaka: Ministry of Finance and National Planning.
[60]	GRZ. Ministry of National Development Planning. 2017. Seventh National Development Plan (7NDP 2017-2021), Accelerating Development Efforts towards Vision 2030 without Leaving Anyone Behind (Vol. 1). Lusaka: Ministry of National Development Planning.
[61]	Berger, H.E. (1983). Beyond the classroom: Parents in education. Toronto: The C.V. Mosby Company.
[62]	Examinations Council of Zambia, & Ministry of Education. (2005). Learning achievement at middle and basic level, Zambia’s national assessment survey report. Lusaka: Author.
[63]	Patton, M.Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods in education (3rd ed.). London: Sage publications.
[64]	Kanyamuna, V., Phiri, M., Kanenga, H. & Mulonda, M. (2020). “Role of Actors Outside Government in Strengthening the Country Monitoring and Evaluation System in Zambia.” World Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, vol. 6, no. 1: 22-29.
[65]	Meyers, S.L., & Grossen, E.N. (1974). Behavioral research theory, preocedure, and design. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman and company.
[66]	Mupeta, S., Muleya, G., Kanyamuna, V., & Simui, F. (2020). Imperial Districts Civic Entrepreneurship: The Implementation of Civic Innovations in the Governance of the University of Zambia. Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 7(7) 674-685.
[67]	Glover, A.J., & Bruning, H.R. (1987). Educational psychology: Principles and applications (2nd ed.). Boston: Little, Brown, and company.
[68]	Ministry of Education. (2007). Operational guideline for community school. Lusaka: Image publisher.
[69]	Kanyamuna, V., Mulonda, M. & Mulele, C.S. Monitoring and Evaluation Legislation in Zambia–Gap Analysis. International Journal of Humanities, Art and Social Studies, 2019. 4(1): 15-25.
[70]	Frost, F.E. (1966). Historical and philosophical foundations of western education. Ohio: Charles E. Merill.
[71]	Kanyamuna, V. 2013. Sector Monitoring and Evaluation Systems in the context of Poverty Reduction Strategies: A comparative case study of Zambia’s Health and Agriculture sectors. MSc–dissertation, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium.
[72]	Kanyamuna, V., Mubita, A., & Kotzé, D. A. Is the policy environment for Zambia supportive of a thriving whole-of-government monitoring and evaluation system? Advances in Social Sciences Research Journal, 2020. 7(1) 542-554.
[73]	Kanyamuna, V., Mulonda, M. & Mulele, C.S. 2019. Monitoring and Evaluation Legislation in Zambia–Gap Analysis. International Journal of Humanities, Art and Social Studies, 4(1): 15-25.