Associations between Motivation, Attitudes, and Habit Strength in Physical Activity Behaviour

Natalie Hopkins^1, , James Benstead², Megan Wardle¹ and Alison Divine¹

¹School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, United Kingdom

²Faculty of Science, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, L3 5UX, United Kingdom

Cite this paper:
Natalie Hopkins, James Benstead, Megan Wardle and Alison Divine. Associations between Motivation, Attitudes, and Habit Strength in Physical Activity Behaviour. Journal of Physical Activity Research. 2022; 7(2):74-80. doi: 10.12691/jpar-7-2-1

Abstract

Habits are a process which generate automaticity of a behaviour, therefore, the development of physical activity habits are key for ensuring maintenance. The adoption of physical activity is reliant on deliberate processes such as motivation and attitudes, which are thought to play a key role in the strengthening of habits. The aim of the present study was to assess the psychological variables that are associated with physical activity habit formation. In a sample of 82 adults (Mean age = 32.7 ± 12.5 yr), participants were recruited through advertisements on the University of Leeds campus gym social media accounts (Facebook and Twitter). Participants completed an online survey assessing physical activity motivation, affective and instrumental attitudes, and habit strength. Results showed that habit strength was higher in more physically active participants compared to those less active. Intrinsic (p=0.007), integrated (p=0.001) and identified (p=0.004) forms of motivation were associated with stronger habit strength suggesting that physical activity has an automatic component that is strengthened when behaviour is driven by autonomous motivation. Affective attitudes (p = .001) were positively related to habit strength whereas instrumental attitudes (p = .001) were negatively related. The findings highlight predictors such as motivation and attitude may aid the process of making physical activity automatic by driving repetition of the behaviour at a more autonomic level. Perhaps building upon a person’s affective associations (e.g enjoyment and pleasure) of physical activity may result in the strengthening of habits. Physical activity interventions might consider features of habit formation and the antecedents that contribute to the process. Suggestions for possible future directions adopting more methodologically rigorous designs are presented.

Keywords:
physical activity habits motivation affective attitudes instrumental attitudes self-determination

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

References:

[1]	Kohl HW, Craig CL, Lambert EV, et al. The pandemic of physical inactivity: Global action for public health. Lancet. 2012; 380(9838).
[2]	BHF. Physical inactivity and sedentary behaviour report 2017. Br Hear Found. Published online 2017.
[3]	Candio P, Meads D, Hill AJ, Bojke L. Modelling the impact of physical activity on public health: A review and critique. Health Policy (New York). 2020; 124(10).
[4]	Hagger MS. Habit and physical activity: Theoretical advances, practical implications, and agenda for future research. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2019; 42.
[5]	Rhodes RE. The Evolving Understanding of Physical Activity Behavior. In:; 2017.
[6]	Gardner B. A review and analysis of the use of ‘habit’ in understanding, predicting and influencing health-related behaviour. Health Psychol Rev. 2015; 9(3).
[7]	Kaushal N, Rhodes RE. Exercise habit formation in new gym members: a longitudinal study. J Behav Med. Published online 2015.
[8]	Gardner B, Abraham C, Lally P, de Bruijn GJ. Towards parsimony in habit measurement: Testing the convergent and predictive validity of an automaticity subscale of the Self-Report Habit Index. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. Published online 2012.
[9]	Aarts H, Paulussen T, Schaalma H. Physical exercise habit: On the conceptualization and formation of habitual health behaviours. Health Educ Res. 1997; 12(3).
[10]	Lally P, Gardner B. Promoting habit formation. Health Psychol Rev. Published online 2013.
[11]	Gardner B, Lally P. Does intrinsic motivation strengthen physical activity habit? Modeling relationships between self-determination, past behaviour, and habit strength. J Behav Med. Published online 2013.
[12]	Rhodes R, de Bruijn GJ, Matheson DH. Habit in the physical activity domain: Integration with intention temporal stability and action control. J Sport Exerc Psychol. Published online 2010.
[13]	Lally P, Van Jaarsveld CHM, Potts HWW, Wardle J. How are habits formed: Modelling habit formation in the real world. Eur J Soc Psychol. Published online 2010.
[14]	Buckworth J, Dishman RK. Determinants of exercise and physical activity. In: In Buckworth, J. (Ed.), Exercise Psychology, Champaign, Ill., Human Kinetics, C2002, p.191-209. 2002.
[15]	Judah G, Gardner B, Aunger R. Forming a flossing habit: An exploratory study of the psychological determinants of habit formation. Br J Health Psychol. Published online 2013.
[16]	Teixeira PJ, Carraça E V., Markland D, Silva MN, Ryan RM. Exercise, physical activity, and self-determination theory: A systematic review. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. Published online 2012.
[17]	Wilson PM, Rodgers WM. The relationship between perceived autonomy support, exercise regulations and behavioral intentions in women. Psychol Sport Exerc. Published online 2004.
[18]	D’Angelo MES, Pelletier LG, Reid RD, Huta V. The roles of self-efficacy and motivation in the prediction of short- and long-term adherence to exercise among patients with coronary heart disease. Heal Psychol. Published online 2014.
[19]	Williams DM, Rhodes RE, Conner MT. Overview of affective determinants of health behavior. In: Affective Determinants of Health Behavior. 2018.
[20]	Conner M, Rhodes RE, Morris B, McEachan R, Lawton R. Changing exercise through targeting affective or cognitive attitudes. Psychol Heal. 2011; 26(2).
[21]	Phipps DJ, Hannan TE, Rhodes RE, Hamilton K. A dual-process model of affective and instrumental attitudes in predicting physical activity. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2021; 54.
[22]	Wiedemann AU, Gardner B, Knoll N, Burkert S. Intrinsic rewards, fruit and vegetable consumption, and habit strength: A three-wave study testing the associative-cybernetic model. Appl Psychol Heal Well-Being. 2014; 6(1).
[23]	Weyland S, Finne E, Krell-Roesch J, Jekauc D. (How) Does Affect Influence the Formation of Habits in Exercise? Front Psychol. 2020; 11.
[24]	Rhodes RE, Fiala B, Conner M. A review and meta-analysis of affective judgments and physical activity in adult populations. Ann Behav Med. 2009; 38(3).
[25]	Radel R, Pelletier L, Pjevac D, Cheval B. The links between self-determined motivations and behavioral automaticity in a variety of real-life behaviors. Motiv Emot. 2017; 41(4).
[26]	Ryan RM, Deci EL. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions. Contemp Educ Psychol. Published online 2000.
[27]	Duncan LR, Hall CR, Wilson PM, Jenny O. Exercise motivation: A cross-sectional analysis examining its relationships with frequency, intensity, and duration of exercise. Int J Behav Nutr Phys Act. Published online 2010.
[28]	Kinnafick FE, Thøgersen-Ntoumani C, Duda JL. Physical activity adoption to adherence, lapse, and dropout: A self-determination theory perspective. Qual Health Res. Published online 2014.
[29]	Ingledew DK, Markland D, Medley AR. Exercise motives and stages of change. J Health Psychol. Published online 1998.
[30]	Geller K, Renneke K, Custer S, Tigue G. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motives Support Adults’ Regular Physical Activity Maintenance. Sport Med Int Open. Published online 2018.
[31]	Phillips LA, Chamberland PÉ, Hekler EB, Abrams J, Eisenberg MH. Intrinsic rewards predict exercise via behavioral intentions for initiators but via habit strength for maintainers. Sport Exerc Perform Psychol. 2016; 5(4).
[32]	Rebar AL, Gardner B, Verplanken B. Habit in Exercise Behavior. In: Handbook of Sport Psychology. 2020.
[33]	Scioli-Salter ER, Sillice MA, Mitchell KS, et al. Predictors of Long-term Exercise Maintenance among College Aged Adults. Californian J Health Promot. 2014; 12(1).
[34]	Chemolli E, Gagné M. Evidence against the continuum structure underlying motivation measures derived from self-determination theory. Psychol Assess. 2014; 26(2).
[35]	Godin G. The Godin-Shephard Leisure-Time Physical Activity Questionnaire. Heal Fit J Canada. 2011; 4(1): 18-22.
[36]	Gardner B. Habit as automaticity, not frequnecy. Eur Heal Psychol. 2012; 14: 32-36.
[37]	Markland D, Tobin V. A modification to the behavioural regulation in exercise questionnaire to include an assessment of amotivation. J Sport Exerc Psychol. 2004; 26(2): 191-196.
[38]	Wilson PM, Rodgers WM, Loitz CC, Scime G. “It’s Who I Am… Really!’ The Importance of Integrated Regulation in Exercise Contexts. J Appl Biobehav Res. 2006; 11(2): 79-104.
[39]	Cid L, Monteiro D, Teixeira D, et al. The Behavioral Regulation in Exercise Questionnaire (BREQ-3) Portuguese-version: Evidence of reliability, validity and invariance across gender. Front Psychol. Published online 2018.
[40]	Courneya KS, Bobick TM. Integrating the theory of planned behavior with the processes and stages of change in the exercise domain. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2000; 1(1).
[41]	Markland D, Hall CR, Duncan LR, Simatovic J. The effects of an imagery intervention on implicit and explicit exercise attitudes. Psychol Sport Exerc. 2015; 17.
[42]	Rebar AL, Dimmock JA, Jackson B, et al. A systematic review of the effects of non-conscious regulatory processes in physical activity. Health Psychol Rev. Published online 2016.
[43]	Lawton J, Ahmad N, Hanna L, Douglas M, Hallowell N. “I can’t do any serious exercise”: Barriers to physical activity amongst people of Pakistani and Indian origin with Type 2 diabetes. Health Educ Res. 2006; 21(1).
[44]	Friederichs SAH, Bolman C, Oenema A, Lechner L. Profiling physical activity motivation based on self-determination theory: A cluster analysis approach. BMC Psychol. 2015; 3(1).