Journals A-Z
All Subjects
Free Journals
sciepub.com
Journal of Physical Activity Research
ISSN (Print): 2576-1919 ISSN (Online): 2574-4437 Website: https://www.sciepub.com/journal/jpar Editor-in-chief: Peter Hart
Open Access
Journal Browser
Go
Issue 1, Volume 7
Article Metrics
  • 3799
    Views
  • 4273
    Saves
  • 0
    Citations
  • 0
    Likes
Export Article
Journal of Physical Activity Research. 2022, 7(1), 37-46
DOI: 10.12691/jpar-7-1-6
Open AccessArticle

The Importance of Branched-chain Amino Acids and Nitrate in Sports Performance and Health

Konstantinos D. Tambalis1, 2, and Giannis Arnaoutis1

1Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Harokopio University, Athens, Greece

2Department of Physical Education and Sport Science, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Greece

Pub. Date: March 08, 2022
View Full Text Full Text PDF (246 KB) Full Text ePUB(60 KB)

Cite this paper:
Konstantinos D. Tambalis and Giannis Arnaoutis. The Importance of Branched-chain Amino Acids and Nitrate in Sports Performance and Health. Journal of Physical Activity Research. 2022; 7(1):37-46. doi: 10.12691/jpar-7-1-6

Abstract

Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA) and nitrate have become increasingly popular mainly for their potential effect on individuals' health and secondary as ergogenic aids. The purpose of this narrative review was to incorporate the current scientific evidence of BCAA and nitrate supplementation on athletic performance and health. The current recommendations of BCAA and nitrate supplementation are discussed, as well as possible health complications associated with its intake. Pubmed, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched for articles on the effects of BCAA and nitrate supplementation in humans. The positive effect of BCAAs supplementation on athletic performance does not appear to be fully established. BCAAs supplementation seems to be recommended for all athletes who exercise vigorously daily, as it enhances their recovery after causing exercise-induced muscle damage. BCAAs supplementation reduces the feeling of delayed muscle pain, which follows because of muscle damage. Limited scientific data suggest a potentially beneficial effect of BCAAs on reducing central fatigue. Several clinical conditions could benefit from BCAAs' consumption. However, there are no reliable markers to evaluate or quantify their requirements. There are no exact consumption protocols and absolute recommendations, mainly because BCAAs are also obtained through the consumption of animal protein. Dietary nitrates lower blood pressure, reduce the cost of exercise oxygen, and, at least sometimes, enhance exercise capacity. Taking supplements for 2-6 days (or up to 15 days) can increase athletic performance during high-intensity exercise. The duration of continuous maximum exercise for which nitrates appear to be ergogenic is between 5-30 min. There is limited evidence that nitrates are beneficial in prolonged exercise performance (40 min), at least when administered short term. Supplementation of approximately 5-9 mmol of nitrate/day for 1-15 days may have beneficial effects on normal exercise responses, although the exact dose-response relationship has not yet been established. Five to 9 mmol of nitrates can be easily consumed in the normal diet and there is currently no evidence to adequately document that taking additional nitrates produces greater benefits. The effectiveness of acute nitrate supplementation is likely to depend on many factors, such as sex, health, hypoxia, diet, and level of fitness/training experience of the subjects. Nitrate needs are most likely met by ingesting approximately 250-500 g of leafy and root vegetables per day; however, dietary supplements might represent a more convenient and accurate way of covering an athlete's nitrate needs.

Keywords:
branched-chain amino acids nitrates exercise performance health recommendations

Creative CommonsThis work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

References:

[1]  Tambalis K. Nutritional support for athletes (Ergogenic Supplements). Carpe Librum, Athens, Greece, 2016.
 
[2]  Posey EA, Bazer FW, Wu G. Amino Acids and Their Metabolites for Improving Human Exercising Performance. Adv Exp Med Biol 2021; 1332: 151-166.
 
[3]  Master PBZ, Macedo RCO. Effects of dietary supplementation in sport and exercise: a review of evidence on milk proteins and amino acids. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 61(7): 1225-1239.
 
[4]  Howatson G, Hoad M, Goodall S, Tallent J, Bell PG, French DN. Exercise-induced muscle damage is reduced in resistance-trained males by branched chain amino acids: A randomized, double-blind, placebo controlled study. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2012; 9: 20.
 
[5]  Choi S, Disilvio B, Fernstrom MH, Fernstrom JD. Oral branched-chain amino acid supplements that reduce brain serotonin during exercise in rats also lower brain catecholamines. Amino Acids 2013; 45(5): 1133-1142.
 
[6]  Dunstan RH, Sparkes DL, Macdonald MM, et al. Diverse characteristics of the urinary excretion of amino acids in humans and the use of amino acid supplementation to reduce fatigue and sub-health in adults. Nutr J 2017; 16(1): 19.
 
[7]  Cruzat VF, Krause M, Newsholme P. Amino acid supplementation and impact on immune function in the context of exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2014; 11(1): 61.
 
[8]  Layman DK. The role of leucine in weight loss diets and glucose homeostasis. J Nutr 2003; 133 (Suppl): 261S-267S.
 
[9]  Zhang XJ, Chinkes DL, Wolfe RR. Leucine supplementation has an anabolic effect on proteins in rabbit skin wound and muscle. J Nutr 2004; 134: 3313-3318.
 
[10]  Rieu I, Sornet C, Bayle G, et al. Leucine-supplemented meal feeding for ten days beneficially affects postprandial muscle protein synthesis in old rats. J Nutr 2003; 133: 1198-1205.
 
[11]  Meisinger E, Strauch M. The influence of two different essential amino acid/keto analogue preparations on the clinical status of patients with chronic renal failure. Z Ernahrungswiss 1985; 24: 96-104.
 
[12]  Brody T. Nutritional Biochemistry, 2nd edition. Academic Press, California, USA, 1999.
 
[13]  Burke L, Deakin V. Clinical Sports Nutrition, 3rd edition. McGraw Hill, Sydney, Australia, 2006.
 
[14]  Spriet LL, Perry CG, Talanian JL. Legal pre-event nutritional supplements to assist energy metabolism. Essays in Biochemistry 2008; 44: 27-43. Review.
 
[15]  Clements WT, Lee SR, Bloomer RJ. Nitrate ingestion: a review of the health and physical performance effects. Nutrients 2014; 6(11): 5224-5264.
 
[16]  Olsson H, Al-Saadi J, Oehler D, Pergolizzi J Jr, Magnusson P. Physiological Effects of Beetroot in Athletes and Patients. Cureus2019; 11(12): e6355.
 
[17]  Maughan RJ, Burke LM, Dvorak J, et al. IOC consensus statement: Dietary supplements and the high-performance athlete. Br J Sports Med 2018; 52: 439-455.
 
[18]  Tan R, Cano L, Lago-Rodríguez Á, Domínguez R. The Effects of Dietary Nitrate Supplementation on Explosive Exercise Performance: A Systematic Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health 2022; 19(2): 762.
 
[19]  Senefeld JW, Wiggins CC, Regimbal RJ, Dominelli PB, Baker SE, Joyner MJ. Ergogenic Effect of Nitrate Supplementation: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2020; 52(10): 2250-2261.
 
[20]  Wong TH, Sim A, Burns SF. The Effect of Beetroot Ingestion on High-Intensity Interval Training: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. Nutrients 2021; 13(11): 3674.
 
[21]  Frexes-Steed M, Lacy DB, Collins J, Abumrad NN. Role of leucine and other amino acids in regulating protein metabolism in vivo. Am J Physiol 1992; 262: E925-935.
 
[22]  Goldberg AL, Chang TW. Regulation and significance of amino acid metabolism in skeletal muscle. Fed Proc 1978; 37: 2301-2307.
 
[23]  Koopman R, Wagenmakers AJ, Manders RJ, et al. Combined ingestion of protein and free leucine with carbohydrate increases postexercise muscle protein synthesis in vivo in male subjects. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2005; 288: 645-53.
 
[24]  Campbell B, Kreider RB, Ziegenfuss T, et al. International Society of Sports Nutrition position stand: protein and exercise. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2007; 4: 8.
 
[25]  Blomstrand E, Hassmén P, Ekblom B, Newsholme EA. Administration of branched-chain amino acids during sustained exercise--effects on performance and on plasma concentration of some amino acids. Eur J Appl PhysiolOccupPhysiol 1991; 63(2): 83-88.
 
[26]  Dreyer HC, Drummond MJ, Pennings B, et al. Leucine-enriched essential amino acid and carbohydrate ingestion following resistance exercise enhances mTOR signaling and protein synthesis in human muscle. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2008; 294(2): E392-E400.
 
[27]  Kim DH, Kim SH, Jeong WS, Lee HY. Effect of BCAA intake during endurance exercises on fatigue substances, muscle damage substances, and energy metabolism substances. J Exerc Nutrition Biochem 2013; 17(4): 169-180.
 
[28]  Kimball SR, Jefferson LS. Signaling pathways and molecular mechanisms through which branched-chain amino acids mediate translational control of protein synthesis. J Nutr 2006; (136): 227S-31S.
 
[29]  Hargreaves KM, Pardridge WM. Neutral amino acid transport at the human blood-brain barrier. J Biol Chem 1988; 263: 19392-19397.
 
[30]  Blomstrand E. A role for branched-chain amino acids in reducing central fatigue. J Nutr 2006; 136(2): 544S-547S.
 
[31]  Castell LM, Yamamoto T, Phoenix J, Newsholme EA. The role of tryptophan in fatigue in different conditions of stress. Adv Exp Med Biol 1999; 467: 697-704.
 
[32]  Shimomura Y, Murakami T, Nakai N, Nagasaki M, Harris RA. Exercise promotes BCAA catabolism: effects of BCAA supplementation on skeletal muscle during exercise. J Nutr 2004; 134(6 Suppl): 1583S-1587S.
 
[33]  Coombes JS, McNaughton LR. Effects of branched-chain amino acid supplementation on serum creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase after prolonged exercise. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2000; 40: 240-246.
 
[34]  Nosaka K. Muscle soreness and amino acids. Training J 2003; 289: 24-28.
 
[35]  Jackman SR, Witard OC, Jeukendrup AE, Tipton KD. Branched-chain amino acid ingestion can ameliorate soreness from eccentric exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2010; 42(5): 962-70.
 
[36]  Wagenmakers AJM, Beckers EJ, Brouns F, et al. Carbohydrate supplementation, glycogen depletion, and amino acid metabolism during exercise. Am J Physiol 1991; 260: E883-E890.
 
[37]  Varnier M, Sarto P, Martines D, et al. Effect of infusing branched-chain amino acid during incremental exercise with reduced muscle glycogen content. Eur J Appl Physiol 1994; 69: 26 -31.
 
[38]  Wolfe RR, Goodenough RD, Wolfe MH, Royle GT, Nadel ER. Isotopic analysis of leucine and urea metabolism in exercising humans. J Appl Physiol 1982; 52: 458 - 466.
 
[39]  Knapik J, Meredith C, Jones B, Fielding R, Young V, Evans W. Leucine metabolism during fasting and exercise. J Appl Physiol 1991; 70: 43- 47.
 
[40]  Gleeson N. Interrelationship between physical activity and branched-chain amino acids. J Nutr 2005; 135(6): 1591S-1595S.
 
[41]  Louard RJ, Barrett EJ, Gelfand RA. Effect of infused branched-chain amino acids on muscle and whole-body amino acid metabolism in man. Clin Sci 1990; 79: 457- 466.
 
[42]  Nair KS, Matthews DE, Welle SL, Braiman T. Effect of leucine on amino acid and glucose metabolism in humans. Metabolism 1992; 41: 643- 648.
 
[43]  Matthews DE. Observations of branched-chain amino acid administration in humans. J Nutr 2005; 135: 1580S-1584S.
 
[44]  Lynch CJ, Halle B, Fujii H, et al. Potential role of leucine metabolism in the leucine signaling pathway involving mTOR. Am J Physiol 2003; 285: E854 -E863.
 
[45]  Koopman R, Wagenmakers AJ, Manders RJ, et al. Combined ingestion of protein and free leucine with carbohydrate increases postexercise muscle protein synthesis in vivo in male subjects. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2005; 288(4): E645-E653.
 
[46]  Mero A. Leucine supplementation and intensive training. Sports Med 1999; 27(6): 347-358.
 
[47]  Negro M, Giardina S, Marzani B, Marzatico F. Branched-chain amino acid supplementation does not enhance athletic performance but affects muscle recovery and the immune system. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2008; 48(3): 347-351.
 
[48]  Urdampilleta A, Mielgo-Ayuso J, Norte Navarro A, Ortiz-Moncada R. Efectos de los aminoácidosramificadosendeportes de largaduración: revisiónbibliográfica [Effects of branched amino acids in endurance sports: a review]. Nutr Hosp 2014; 31(2): 577-89.
 
[49]  Plotkin DL, Delcastillo K, Van Every DW, Tipton KD, Aragon AA, Schoenfeld BJ. Isolated Leucine and Branched-Chain Amino Acid Supplementation for Enhancing Muscular Strength and Hypertrophy: A Narrative Review. Int J Sport NutrExercMetab 2021; 31(3): 292-301.
 
[50]  Master PBZ, Macedo RCO. Effects of dietary supplementation in sport and exercise: a review of evidence on milk proteins and amino acids. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 61(7): 1225-1239.
 
[51]  Kerksick CM, Wilborn CD, Roberts MD, et al. ISSN exercise & sports nutrition review update: research & recommendations. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2018; 15(1): 38.
 
[52]  Mackinnon LT. Advances in Exercise and Immunology. Human Kinetics, Champaign IL, NY, USA, 1999.
 
[53]  Pedersen BK, Bruunsgaard H. How physical exercise influences the establishment of infections. Sports Med 1995; 19: 393-400.
 
[54]  Kephart WC, Wachs TD, Thompson RM, et al. Ten weeks of branched-chain amino acid supplementation improves select performance and immunological variables in trained cyclists [published correction appears in Amino Acids. 2018 Oct;50(10): 1495. Mac Thompson R [corrected to Thompson RM]]. Amino Acids 2016; 48(3): 779-789.
 
[55]  Bassit RA, Sawada LA, Bacurau RF, et al. Branched-chain amino acid supplementation and the immune response of long-distance athletes. Nutrition 2002; 18(5): 376-379.
 
[56]  Rohde T, MacLean DA, Pedersen BK. Effect of glutamine supplementation on changes in the immune system induced by repeated exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 1998; 30: 856-862.
 
[57]  Krzywkowski K, Petersen EW, Ostrowski K, Kristensen JH, Boza J, Pedersen BK. Effect of glutamine supplementation on exercise induced changes in lymphocyte function. Am J Physiol 2001; 281: C1259-C1265.
 
[58]  Zhang S, Zeng X, Ren M, Mao X, Qiao S. Novel metabolic and physiological functions of branched chain amino acids: a review. J Anim Sci Biotechnol 2017; 8: 10.
 
[59]  Kurpad AV, Vaz M. Protein and amino acid requirements in the elderly. Eur J Clin Nutr 2000; 54 (Suppl): S131-142.
 
[60]  Tessari P, Zanetti M, Barazzoni R, et al. Response of phenylalanine and leucine kinetics to branched chain-enriched amino acids and insulin in patients with cirrhosis. Gastroenterology 1996; 111: 127-37.
 
[61]  Marchesini G, Bianchi G, Merli M, et al. Nutritional supplementation with branched chain amino acids in advanced cirrhosis: a double-blind, randomized trial. Gastroenterology 2003; 124: 1792-1801.
 
[62]  Tom A, Nair KS. Assessment of branched-chain amino Acid status and potential for biomarkers. J Nutr 2006; 136(1 Suppl): 324S-330S.
 
[63]  Morton RW, Murphy KT, McKellar SR, et al. A systematic review, meta-analysis and meta-regression of the effect of protein supplementation on resistance training-induced gains in muscle mass and strength in healthy adults. Br J Sports Med 2018; 52(6): 376-384.
 
[64]  Sports Dieticians Australia. Branched-chain amino acids (BCAA’s). https://www.sportsdietitians.com.au/factsheets/supplements/branched-chain-amino-acids-bcaas/. Assessed February 15, 2022.
 
[65]  Hord NG, Tang Y, Bryan NS. Food sources of nitrates and nitrites: the physiologic context for potential health benefits. Am J Clin Nutr 2009; 90(1): 1-10.
 
[66]  Bailey SJ, Vanhatalo A, Winyard PG, Jones AM. The nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway: Its role in human exercise physiology. Eur J Sport Sci 2012; 12(4): 309-320.
 
[67]  Jones AM, Thompson, Wylie LJ, Vanhatalo A. Dietary nitrate and physical performance. Annu Rev Nutr 2018; 38: 303-328.
 
[68]  Katan MB. Nitrate in foods: harmful or healthy? Am J Clin Nutr 2009; 90(1): 11-12.
 
[69]  McNally B, Griffin JL, Roberts LD. Dietary inorganic nitrate: from villain to hero in metabolic disease? Mol Nutr Food Res 2016; 60(1): 67-78.
 
[70]  Macuh M, Knap B. Effects of Nitrate Supplementation on Exercise Performance in Humans: A Narrative Review. Nutrients 2021; 13(9): 3183.
 
[71]  Jones AM. Dietary nitrate supplementation and exercise performance. Sports Med 2014; 44(Suppl 1): S35-S45.
 
[72]  Domínguez R, Maté-Muñoz JL, Cuenca E, et al. Effects of beetroot juice supplementation on intermittent high-intensity exercise efforts. J Int Soc Sports Nutr 2018; 15: 2.
 
[73]  Larsen FJ, Weitzberg E, Lundberg JO, Ekblom B. Effects of dietary nitrate on oxygen cost during exercise. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2007; 191(1): 59-66.
 
[74]  Van De Walle GP, Vukovich MD. The Effect of Nitrate Supplementation on Exercise Tolerance and Performance: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Strength Cond Res 2018; 32(6): 1796-1808.
 
[75]  Tamme T, Reinik M, Roasto M, Juhkam K, Tenno T, Kiis A. Nitrates and nitrites in vegetables and vegetable-based products and their intakes by the Estonian population. Food AdditContam. 2006; 23(4): 355-361.
 
[76]  Hoon MW, Hopkins W, Jones AM, et al. Nitrate supplementation and high-intensity performance in competitive cyclists. Appl PhysiolNutrMetab 2014; 39: 1043-1049.
 
[77]  Hoon MW, Jones AM, Johnson NA, et al. The effect of variable doses of inorganic nitrate-rich beetroot juice on simulated 2,000-m rowing performance in trained athletes. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2014; 9(4): 615-620.
 
[78]  Kelly J, Vanhatalo A, Wilkerson DP, Wylie LJ, Jones AM. Effects of nitrate on the power-duration relationship for severe-intensity exercise. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2013; 45(9): 1798-1806.
 
[79]  Lansley KE, Winyard PG, Bailey SJ, et al., Acute dietary nitrate supplementation improves cycling time trial performance. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2011; 43(6): 1125-1131.
 
[80]  Murphy M, Eliot K, Heuertz RM, Weiss E. Whole beetroot consumption acutely improves running performance. J AcadNutr Diet 2012; 112(4): 548-552.
 
[81]  Muggeridge DJ, Howe CC, Spendiff O, Pedlar C, James PE, Easton C. A single dose of beetroot juice enhances cycling performance in simulated altitude. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2014; 46(1): 143-150.
 
[82]  Pinna M, Roberto S, Milia R, et al. Effect of beetroot juice supplementation on aerobic response during swimming. Nutrients 2014; 6(2): 605-615.
 
[83]  Wickham KA, Spriet LL. No longer beeting around the bush: a review of potential sex differences with dietary nitrate supplementation. Appl PhysiolNutrMetab 2019; 44(9): 915-924.
 
[84]  Wylie LJ, Bailey SJ, Kelly J, Blackwell JR, Vanhatalo A, Jones AM. Influence of beetroot juice supplementation on intermittent exercise performance. Eur J Appl Physiol 2016; 116(2): 415-425.
 
[85]  Gandini S, Merzenich H, Robertson C, Boyle P. Meta-analysis of studies on breast cancer risk and diet: the role of fruit and vegetable consumption and the intake of associated micronutrients. Eur J Cancer 2000; 36(5): 636-646.
 
[86]  Detopoulou P, Panagiotakos DB, Antonopoulou S, Pitsavos C, Stefanadis C. Dietary choline and betaine intakes in relation to concentrations of inflammatory markers in healthy adults: The ATTICA study. Am J Clin Nutr 2008; 87: 424-430.
 
[87]  Lundberg JO, Weitzberg E, Gladwin MT. The nitrate-nitrite-nitric oxide pathway in physiology and therapeutics. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2008; 7: 156-167.
 
[88]  Ma L, Hu L, Feng X, Wang S. Nitrate and Nitrite in Health and Disease. Aging Dis 2018; 9(5): 938-945.
 
[89]  Nitrite and Nitrate in Human Health and Disease. [Accessed on 4 February 2022]. Available online: http://link.springer.com/book/10.1007%2F978-1-60761-616-0.
 
[90]  Tannenbaum SR, Sinskey AJ, Weisman M, Bishop W. Nitrite in human saliva. Its possible relationship to nitrosamine formation. J Natl Cancer Inst. 1974; 53: 79-84.
 
Manuscript template