Journals A-Z
All Subjects
Free Journals
sciepub.com
American Journal of Public Health Research
ISSN (Print): 2327-669X ISSN (Online): 2327-6703 Website: https://www.sciepub.com/journal/ajphr Editor-in-chief: Apply for this position
Open Access
Journal Browser
Go
Issue 2, Volume 12
Article Metrics
  • 982
    Views
  • 1949
    Saves
  • 0
    Citations
  • 8
    Likes
Export Article
American Journal of Public Health Research. 2024, 12(2), 22-32
DOI: 10.12691/ajphr-12-2-2
Open AccessArticle

Endemic Rabies in Ethiopia in the One Health Era

Mahendra Pal1, , Tesfaye Rebuma2, Motuma Regassa3, Chala Gutema3 and Alessandra Mazzeo4

1Narayan Consultancy of Veterinary Public Health and Microbiology, B-103, Sapphire Lifestyle, Bharuch -392012, Gujarat, India

2School of Veterinary Medicine, Ambo University, Guder Mamo Mezemir Campus, Veterinary Teaching Clinic, Ambo, Oromia, 240, Ethiopia

3Nono Woreda Agricultural Office, Silk-Amba, West Shewa Zone, Ambo, Oromia, Ethiopia

4Department of Agricultural, Environmental and Food Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, 86100, Italy

Pub. Date: April 27, 2024
View Full Text Full Text PDF (262 KB) Full Text ePUB(107 KB)

Cite this paper:
Mahendra Pal, Tesfaye Rebuma, Motuma Regassa, Chala Gutema and Alessandra Mazzeo. Endemic Rabies in Ethiopia in the One Health Era. American Journal of Public Health Research. 2024; 12(2):22-32. doi: 10.12691/ajphr-12-2-2

Abstract

Rabies is the most lethal viral zoonosis, with bats as reservoirs, causing fatal encephalomyelitis in humans and terrestrial mammals across various categories, including pets, livestock, stray animals, and wildlife. Rabies spans natural, rural, and urban areas, primarily affecting marginalized communities in low-income countries and posing a threat to food security and livelihoods. In Ethiopia, where dog-mediated human rabies is endemic, it is considered a prioritized zoonotic disease addressed through ongoing efforts, including parental dog vaccination initiatives. These efforts are supported by various global and international organizations. The One Health approach emphasizes the need to intensify these actions to resolve the persistent issue of a large population of stray dogs possibly interacting with wild animals and bats. Urgent experimentation is essential for the development of new protective vaccines against the bat-associated rabies viruses present in Ethiopia. These viruses can infect dogs vaccinated with the currently available vaccine. Additionally, adopting Oral Rabies Vaccination for stray and guard dogs in urban and rural areas, respectively, could be crucial. Oral Rabies Vaccination, already successfully implemented in Europe for wildlife (foxes), establishes a natural barrier of vaccinated animals effectively protecting the territory from the entry of rabid wild animals, as vaccinated animals can preside over the territory without being infected.

Keywords:
One Health zoonoses rabies bat-associated rabies viruses stray dogs Oral Rabies Vaccination Ethiopia

Creative CommonsThis work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

References:

[1]  WHO. World Health Organization. Zoonoses. Available: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/zoonoses [Accessed Jan. 13, 2024].
 
[2]  Pal, M. (2005). Importance of zoonoses in public health. Indian Journal of Animal Sciences, 75: 586-591.
 
[3]  Pal, M. (2007). Zoonoses. 2nd Ed. Satyam Publishers, Jaipur, India.
 
[4]  Mazzeo, A., Tremonte, P., Lombardi, S. J., Caturano, C., Correra, A. and Sorrentino, E. (2022). From the Intersection of Food-Borne Zoonoses and EU Green Policies to an In-Embryo One Health Financial Model. Foods, 11, 2736.
 
[5]  World Organisation for Animal Health, Founded as OIE (WOAH). One Health. https:// www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/global-initiatives/one-health/ [Accessed Jan. 13, 2024].
 
[6]  Osburn, B., Scott, C. and Gibbs P. (2009) One world - one medicine - one health: emerging veterinary challenges and opportunities. Revue Scientifique et Technique 28(2):481-6.
 
[7]  Pal, M., Gebrezabiher, W. and Rahman, M.T. (2014). The roles of veterinary, medical and environmental professionals to achieve ONE HEALTH. Journal of Advanced Veterinary Animal Research 1: 148-155.
 
[8]  Berthe, F. C. J., Bouley, T., Karesh, W. B., Le Gall, F. G., Machalaba, C. C., Plante, C. A. and Seifman, R. M. (2018). Operational framework for strengthening human, animal and environmental public health systems at their interface. Washington, DC: World Bank Group. https://documents.worldbank.org/ en/publication/ documents-reports/ documentdetail/ 703711517234402168/ operational- framework -for-strengthening -human-animal-and-environmental-public-health-systems-at-their-interface [Accessed Jan. 13, 2024].
 
[9]  World Organisation for Animal Health, Founded as OIE (WOAH). OHHLEP - Tripartite and UNEP support OHHLEP’s definition of “One Health” https://www.woah.org/en/tripartite-and-unep-support-ohhleps-definition-of-one-health/ [Accessed Jan.13, 2024].
 
[10]  World Health Organization (WHO). One Health Initiative. https://www.who.int/teams/one-health-initiative/quadripartite-secretariat-for-one-health/one-health-joint-plan-of-action [Accessed Jan. 13, 2024].
 
[11]  Moges, N. (2015). Epidemiology, prevention and control methods of rabies in domestic animals. European Journal of Biological Sciences, 7(2), 85-90.
 
[12]  Rupprecht, C. E., Hanlon, C. A. and Slate, D. (2006). Control and prevention of rabies in animals: paradigm shifts. Developments in Biologicals, 125, 103-111.
 
[13]  World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH). (2018). Zero by 30: the global strategic plan to end human deaths from dog-mediated rabies by 2030. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/272756 [Accessed Jan. 13, 2024].
 
[14]  WHO.World Health Organization (2019). Zero by 30: the global strategic plan to end human deaths from dog-mediated rabies by 2030. United Against Rabies Collaboration: first annual progress report: global strategic plan to end human deaths from dog-mediated rabies by 2030 https:// apps.who.int/ iris/handle/10665/328053 [Accessed Jan. 13, 2024].
 
[15]  Aklilu, M., Tadele, W., Alemu, A., Abdela, S., Getahun, G., Hailemariam, A., Tadesse, Y., Kitila, G., Birhanu, E., Fli I., Getachew A. and Mulugeta Y. (2021). Situation of rabies in Ethiopia: A five-year retrospective study of human rabies in Addis Ababa and the surrounding regions. Journal of Tropical Medicine, Vol. 2021, Article ID 6662073.
 
[16]  World Health Organization (WHO). Reported number of human rabies death. https:// www.who.int/ data/ gho/ data/ themes/topics/rabies [Accessed Jan. 13, 2024].
 
[17]  International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV). Virus Taxonomy: 2021 Release – EC 53, online, July 2021 https://ictv.global/report/chapter/rhabdoviridae/rhabdoviridae/lyssavirus [Accessed Jan. 13, 2024].
 
[18]  Shipley, R., Wright, E., Selden, D., Wu, G., Aegerter, J., Fooks, A. R. and Banyard, A. C. (2019). Bats and Viruses: Emergence of Novel Lyssaviruses and Association of Bats with Viral Zoonoses in the EU. Tropical Medicine and Infectious Diseases. 4, 31.
 
[19]  WHO Position Paper (2018). Rabies vaccines. Weekly Epidemiological Record, 16, 93, 201–220. https:// iris.who.int/ bitstream/handle/10665/272372/WER9316-201-219.pdf? sequence=1 [Accessed Jan. 18, 2024].
 
[20]  Ugolini, G. (2011). Rabies Virus as a trans-neuronal tracer of neuronal connections. Advances in Virus Research, 79, 165-202. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/B978012387040700010X?via%3Dihub [Accessed Jan. 16, 2024].
 
[21]  Jackson, A. C., Warrell, M. J., Rupprecht, C. E., Ertl, H. C., Dietzschold, B., O'reilly, M. and Wilde, H. (2003). Management of rabies in humans. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 36(1), 60-63.
 
[22]  Tojinbara, K., Sugiura, K., Yamada, A., Kakitani, I. and Kwan, N. C. L. (2016). Estimating the probability distribution of the incubation period for rabies using data from the 1948–1954 rabies epidemic in Tokyo. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 123, 102-105.
 
[23]  Sparkes, J., Fleming, P. J. S., Ballard, G., Scott‐Orr, H., Durr, S. and Ward, M. P. (2015). Canine rabies in Australia: A review of preparedness and research needs. Zoonoses and Public Health, 62(4), 237-253.
 
[24]  Messenger S. L., Smith J. S. and Rupprecht C. E. (2002). Emerging Epidemiology of Bat-Associated Cryptic Cases of Rabies in Humans in the United States. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 35(6), 738–747.
 
[25]  Shite, A., Guadu, T. and Admassu, B. (2015). Challenges of rabies. International Journal of Basic and Applied Virology, 4(2), 41-52. https://www.idosi.org/ijbav/4(2)15/1.pdf [Accessed Jan. 22, 2024].
 
[26]  Chernet, B. and Nejash, A. (2016). Review of rabies prevention and control. International Journal of Life Sciences, 2016, Vol. 4 (2): 293-301. https://oaji.net/articles/2016/736-1471178547.pdf [Accessed Jan. 22, 2024].
 
[27]  Klingen, Y., Conzelmann, K. K. and Finke, S. (2008). Double-labeled rabies virus: live tracking of enveloped virus transport. Journal of virology, 82(1), 237-245. https:// pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17928343/ [Accessed Jan. 22, 2024].
 
[28]  Hemachudha, T., Ugolini, G., Wacharapluesadee, S., Sungkarat, W., Shuangshoti, S. and Laothamatas, J. (2013). Human rabies: neuropathogenesis, diagnosis, and management. The Lancet Neurology, 12(5), 498-513. https:// europepmc.org/ article/med/23602163 [Accessed Jan. 22, 2024].
 
[29]  Spickler, A. R. (2021). Rabies. Retrieved from The Center for Food Security and Health, Institute for International Cooperation in Animal Biologics, Iowa State University, World Organisation for Animal Health, United State Department of Agriculture. http://www.cfsph.iastate.edu/DiseaseInfo/factsheets.php [Accessed Jan. 14, 2024].
 
[30]  WOAH. World Organization for Animal Health. founded as OIE. Terrestrial Animal Health Code. (2023). Chapter 8.15. Infection with Rabies Virus. https:// www.woah.org/en/what-we-do/standards/codes-and-manuals/terrestrial-code-online access/ ?id=169&L=1&htmfile=chapitre_rabies.htm [Accessed Jan. 20, 2024].
 
[31]  WOAH..World Organisation for Animal Health, founded as OIE. Terrestrial Manual. Chapter 3.1.18. Rabies (infection with rabies virus and other lyssaviruses). https:// www.woah.org/ fileadmin/Home/eng/Health_standards/tahm/3.01.18_RABIES.pdf [Accessed Jan. 14, 2024].
 
[32]  WHO. World Health Organization. Rabies https:// www.who.int/ health-topics/rabies [Accessed Jan. 14, 2024].
 
[33]  Kuzmin, I. V. and Rupprecht, C. E. (2007) 6-Bat Rabies. En: Jackson AC, Wunner WH, editores. Rabies. 2.ª ed. Oxford: Academic Press; 2007. p. 259-307.
 
[34]  WHO. World Health Organization. Rabies – Bulletin – Europe. https://www.who-rabies-bulletin.org [Accessed Jan. 14, 2024].
 
[35]  Leopard, S., Barneschi, E., Manna, G., Zecchin, B., Priori, P., Drzewnioková, P., Festa, F., Lombardo, A.; Parca, F., Scaravelli, D., Maroni Ponti, A. and De Benedictis P. (2021) Spillover of West Caucasian Bat Lyssavirus (WCBV) in a Domestic Cat and Westward Expansion in the Palearctic Region. Viruses, 13, 2064.
 
[36]  ECDC. European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control. Rabies. In: ECDC. Annual epidemiological report for 2019. Stockholm: ECDC; 2021. https: // www.ecdc.europa.eu/ sites/default/files/documents/AER-rabies-2019_0.pdf [Accessed Jan. 22, 2024].
 
[37]  EFSA and ECDC (European Food Safety Authority and European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control). (2023). The European Union One Health 2022 Zoonoses Report. EFSA Journal, 21(12), e8442.
 
[38]  Oyda, S. and Megersa, B. (2017). A review of rabies in livestock and humans in Ethiopia. International Journal of Research-Granthaalayah, 5(6), 561-577. https:// www.granthaalayahpublication.org/journals/granthaalayah/article/view/68_IJRG17_A06_361/1956 [Accessed Jan. 22, 2024].
 
[39]  Consales, C. A. and Bolzan, V. L. (2007). Rabies review: immunopathology, clinical aspects and treatment. Journal of Venomous Animals and Toxins including Tropical Diseases, 13, 5-38. https:// www.scielo.br /j/jvatitd/ a/ PZMf65MHTJjpRdsNT9Z6Hxw/?format=pdf&lang=en [Accessed Jan. 15, 2024].
 
[40]  Yousaf, M. Z., Qasim, M., Zia, S., Rehman Khan, M. U., Ashfaq, U. A. and Khan, S. (2012). Rabies molecular virology, diagnosis, prevention and treatment. Virology Journal, 9, 1-5.
 
[41]  Abera, E., Assefa, A., Belete, S. and Mekonen, N. (2015). Review on rabies, with emphasis on disease control and eradication measures. International Journal of Basic and Applied Virology 4(2): 60-70. https://idosi.org/ijbav/4(2)15/3.pdf [Accessed Jan. 15, 2024].
 
[42]  Fooks, A. R., McElhinney, L. M., Horton, D., Banyard, A., Johnson, N., Marston, D. A. and Rupprecht, C. (2012). Molecular tools for rabies diagnosis in animals. In OIE, Compendium of the OIE Global Conference on Rabies Control. Paris: World Organisation for Animal Health (pp. 75-87).https:// www.researchgate.net/publication/285767655_Molecular_tools_for_rabies_diagnosis_in_animals [Accessed Jan. 15, 2024].
 
[43]  Vu, A. H., Nguyen, T. T., Nguyen, D. V., Ngo, G. C., Pham, T. Q., Inoue, S., Nishizono, A., Nguyen, T. D. and Nguyen, A. K. T. (2021). Rabies-infected dogs at slaughterhouses: A potential risk of rabies transmission via dog trading and butchering activities in Vietnam. Zoonoses and Public Health, 68, 630–637.
 
[44]  CDPH. California Department of Public Health - Veterinary Public Health Section. Compendium of Rabies Control and Prevention 2012. http:// publichealth.lacounty.gov /vet/docs/ Shelter/CACompendiumofRabiesControlandPrevention2012.pdf [Accessed Jan. 15, 2024].
 
[45]  CDC. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report - Recommendations and Reports / Vol. 60 / No. 6 November 4, 2011. Compendium of Animal Rabies Prevention and Control, 2011 National Association of State Public Health Veterinarians, Inc. https:// www.cdc.gov/ mmwr/pdf/rr/rr6006.pdf [Accessed Jan. 15, 2024].
 
[46]  WHO. World Health Organization Rabies – Fact sheet. https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/rabies [Accessed Jan. 17, 2024].
 
[47]  Sandøe, P., Jensen, J. B., Jensen, F. and Nielsen, S. S. (2019). Shelters reflect but cannot solve underlying problems with relinquished and stray animals - A retrospective study of dogs and cats entering and leaving shelters in Denmark from 2004 to 2017. Animals, 9(10), 765. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31590389/ [Accessed Jan. 22, 2024].
 
[48]  Abdulkarim, A., Khan, M. A. K. B. G. and Aklilu, E. (2021). Stray animal population control: methods, public health concern, ethics, and animal welfare issues. World's Veterinary Journal, 11(3), 319-326. https:// wvj.science-line.com/ attachments/ article/66/WVJ%2011(3),%20319326,%20September%2025,%202021.pdf [Accessed Jan. 15, 2024].
 
[49]  EC.European Commission. Guidelines to design an EU co-financed programme on eradication and control of Rabies in wildlife (2015). https:// food.ec.europa.eu/ system/files/2016-12/cff_animal_vet-progs_guidance_rabies.pdf [Accessed Jan. 22, 2024].
 
[50]  Murray, K. O., Holmes, K. C. and Hanlon, C. A. (2009). Rabies in vaccinated dogs and cats in the United States, 1997–2001. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 235(6), 691-695. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19751164/ [Accessed Jan. 22, 2024].
 
[51]  Robardet, E., Zdravkova, A., Ilieva, D., Hakmann, E., Georgopoulou, I., Tasioudi, K., Nokireki, T., Isomursu, M., Lohman Jankovic, I.; Lojkic, I.; Serzants, M.; Zommere, Z.; Masiulis, M., Jaceviciene, I., Vuta, V., Wasniewski, M. and Dilaveris, D. (2024). Retrospective analysis of sero-prevalence and bait uptake estimations in foxes after oral rabies vaccination programmes at European level: Lessons learned and paths forward. Veterinary Microbiology, 288,109917.
 
[52]  Hanlon, C. A., Niezgoda, M. and Rupprecht, C. E. (2002). Postexposure prophylaxis for prevention of rabies in dogs. American Journal of Veterinary Research, 63(8), 1096-1100. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12171160/ [Accessed Jan. 22, 2024].
 
[53]  Blackmore, C. (2014). Rabies prevention and control in Florida. Florida Department of Health - Division of Disease Control and Health Protection. Pp. 122 https:// www.floridahealth.gov/ diseases-and-conditions/ rabies/ _documents/rabiesguide2014-web.pdf [Accessed Jan. 22, 2024].
 
[54]  Leslie, M. J., Messenger, S., Rohde, R. E., Smith, J., Cheshier, R., Hanlon, C. and Rupprecht, C. E. (2006). Bat-associated rabies virus in skunks. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 12(8), 1274. https://stacks.cdc.gov/view/cdc/7915 [Accessed Jan. 21 2024].
 
[55]  Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). One Health approach to rabies. https://www.fao.org/one-health/areas-of-work/rabies/en [Accessed Jan. 17, 2024].
 
[56]  Gemeku, R. (2017). Review on economic importance’s of rabies in developing countries and its controls. Archives of Preventive Medicine, 2(1), 015-021. https:// www.peertechzpublications.org/ articles/APM-2-107.php [Accessed Feb. 02, 2024].
 
[57]  Aga, A. M., Hurisa, B. and Urga, K. (2015). Current situation of rabies prevention and control in developing countries: Ethiopia perspective. Journal of Infectious Diseases and Preventive Medicine, 4(1), 1-6. https://www.longdom.org/ open-access-pdfs/current-situation-of-rabies-prevention-and-control-in-developingcountries-ethiopia-perspective-2329-8731-1000128.pdf [Accessed Feb. 02, 2024].
 
[58]  U.S. Department of Health and Human Service - Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Ethiopian Public Health Institute, Ministry of Agriculture (2015) Zoonotic disease prioritization for inter sectorial engagement in Ethiopia CS 260973. https://www.cdc.gov/onehealth/pdfs/hammett-ethiopi-workshop-508.pdf [Accessed Feb. 01, 2024].
 
[59]  Tschopp, R., Bekele, S. and Aseffa, A. (2016) Dog demography, animal bite management and rabies knowledge - Attitude and practices in the Awash Basin, Eastern Ethiopia. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases;10(2): e0004471.
 
[60]  Kanda, K., Jayasinghe, A., Jayasinghe, C. and Yoshida, T. (2022). A regional analysis of the progress of current dog-mediated Rabies control and prevention. Pathogens 11, 1130. https:// www.mdpi.com/2076-0817/11/10/1130 [Accessed Feb. 01, 2024].
 
[61]  FAO, UNEP, WHO, and WOAH. 2022. One Health Joint Plan of Action 2022-2026. Working together for the health of humans, animals, plants and the environment. Rome.
 
[62]  GARC. Global Alliance for Rabies Control - Stepwise Approach towards Rabies Elimination (SARE) https:// rabiesalliance.org/ tools/planning-tools/sare [Accessed Feb. 01, 2024].
 
[63]  Deressa, A., Ali, A., Bayene, M., Selassie, B. N., Yimer, E. and Hussen, K. (2010). The status of rabies in Ethiopia: A retrospective record review. Ethiopian Journal of Health Development, 24(2). https:// www.ajol.info/ index.php/ ejhd/article/view/62961 [Accessed Feb. 02, 2024].
 
[64]  Nilsson, M. (2014). Effect of rabies education programs on rabies awareness, attitudes towards dogs and animal welfare among children in Lilongwe, Malawi. https:// stud.epsilon.slu.se/ 6516/7/nilsson_m_140320.pdf [Accessed Jan. 13, 2024].
 
[65]  Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia - Joint Ministry of Health, Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries, Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Urban Agriculture Bureaus and Ministry of Health Implementation Plan. (2018). National Rabies Control and Elimination Strategy 2018-2030. https:// www.onehealthethiopia.org/ resources/strategies-and guidelines? task=download.send&id=3&catid=3&m=0 [Accessed Jan. 22, 2024].
 
[66]  Pal, M. (2017) Can Immunization be an effective tool in rabies control? EC Microbiology 10(1): 01-02.
 
[67]  Reta, T., Teshale, S., Deresa, A., Ali, A., Mengistu, F., Sifer, D. and Freuling, C. (2014). Rabies in animals and humans in and around Addis Ababa, the capital city of Ethiopia: A retrospective and questionnaire based study. Journal of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Health, 6(6), 178-186. https:// academicjournals.org /journal/JVMAH/article-full-text-pdf/20A856444622 [Accessed Feb. 02, 2024].
 
[68]  FAO. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. One Health – Preventing and Controlling Rabies through a One Health Approach. https:// www.fao.org/ one-health/ highlights/rabies-case-studies/en#ethiopia [Accessed Feb. 02, 2024].
 
[69]  FAO. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/one-health/highlights/rabies-case-studies/en [Accessed Jan. 22, 2024].
 
[70]  Wallace, R., Cliquet, F., Fehlner-Gardiner, C., Fooks, A., Sabeta, C., Setién, A., Tu, C., Vuta, V., Yakobson, B., Yang, D.-K., Brückner, G., Freuling, C. M., Knopf, L., Metlin, A., Pozzetti, P., Suseno, P. P., Shadomy, S. V., Torres, G., Vigilato, M. A. N., Abela-Ridder, A. and Müller, T. (2020). Role of Oral Rabies Vaccines in the Elimination of Dog-Mediated Human Rabies Deaths. Emerging InfectiousDiseases, 26(12), pp. e1-e9. https:// anses.hal.science/anses-03294664/file/20-1266.pdf [Accessed Jan. 22, 2024].
 
[71]  Alemu, M. (2023) Review on: rabies disease and its prevention and control strategies. International Journal of Advanced Research in Biological Sciences 10(10):43-52 https:// ijarbs.com/ pdfcopy/2023/ oct2023/ijarbs4.pdf [Accessed Feb. 09, 2024].
 
[72]  Gelgie, A. E., Cavalerie L., Kaba M., Asrat D. and Mor, S. M. (2022). Rabies research in Ethiopia: A systematic review. One Health. 18; 15: 100450.
 
[73]  Hampson. K., Coudeville, L., Lembo, T., Sambo, M., Kieffer, A., Attlan, M et al. (2015) Estimating the global burden of endemic canine rabies. PLoS Neglected Tropical Diseases 9(4): e0003709.
 
[74]  Pal, M., Hailu, A., Agarwal, R. K. and Dave, P. (2013). Recent developments in the diagnosis of rabies in humans and animals. Journal of Veterinary Public Health 11: 77-82.
 
[75]  Macdonald D. W. (1983) The ecology of carnivore social behavior. Nature, 301, 379-383.
 
[76]  Haydon, D. T.; Randall, D. A.; Matthews, L.; Knobel, D. L.; Tallents, L. A.; Gravenor, M. B.; Williams, S. D.; Pollinger, J. P.; Cleaveland, S.; Woolhouse, M. E.; Sillero-Zubiri, C.; Marino, J.; Macdonald, D. W. and Laurenson, M.K. (2006) Low-coverage vaccination strategies for the conservation of endangered species. Nature, 12;443(7112): 692-5.
 
Manuscript template