Anisakiasis: An Emerging but Underestimated Parasitic Zoonosis with One Health Perspectives

Mahendra Pal^1, , Ravindra Zende², Tesfaye Rebuma³, Aishwarya Nair² and Oskar Nowak⁴

¹Narayan Consultancy on Veterinary Public Health and Microbiology, Bharuch, Gujarat, India

²Department of Veterinary Public Health and Epidemiology, Mumbai Veterinary College, Parel, Mumbai, India

³Shaggar City administration Sebeta Sub city Agricultural office, Sebeta, Oromia, Ethiopia

⁴Institute of Human Biology and Evolution, Faculty of Biology, Adam Mickiewicz University, Poznań, ul. Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 6, 61-614 Poznań

Cite this paper:
Mahendra Pal, Ravindra Zende, Tesfaye Rebuma, Aishwarya Nair and Oskar Nowak. Anisakiasis: An Emerging but Underestimated Parasitic Zoonosis with One Health Perspectives. American Journal of Medical and Biological Research. 2026; 14(1):15-21. doi: 10.12691/ajmbr-14-1-3

Abstract

Anisakiasis, commonly referred to as herring worm disease, is an emerging and often under-recognized food-borne parasitic zoonosis caused by the accidental ingestion of third-stage larvae of anisakid nematodes, predominantly Anisakis simplex sensu lato and Anisakis pegreffii, along with species belonging to the genera Pseudoterranova and Contracaecum. Human infection primarily occurs through the consumption of raw, undercooked, or inadequately processed marine fish and seafood contaminated with infective larvae. Although anisakiasis has a global distribution, its epidemiological burden remains largely underestimated due to misdiagnosis, underreporting, and limited awareness, particularly in regions where culinary practices involving raw or minimally processed seafood are gaining popularity. Clinically, anisakiasis presents with a broad spectrum of manifestations ranging from acute gastrointestinal symptoms, such as abdominal pain, nausea, and vomiting, to chronic granulomatous inflammation and severe hypersensitivity reactions, including urticaria and life-threatening anaphylaxis. The pathogenesis involves both direct tissue invasion by larvae and host immune responses, complicating diagnosis and management. The intricate life cycle of anisakid nematodes, involving marine mammals as definitive hosts, crustaceans as intermediate hosts, and fish as paratenic hosts, underscores the ecological complexity and the interconnectedness of marine ecosystems with human health. Given the increasing globalization of seafood trade and changing dietary habits, anisakiasis represents a growing public health concern. Effective control requires enhanced epidemiological surveillance, implementation of stringent food safety measures, and increased consumer awareness regarding proper seafood handling and preparation. Furthermore, the integration of veterinary, medical, and environmental disciplines within a One Health framework is critical for comprehensive risk assessment, prevention, and control of this neglected zoonotic disease.

Keywords:
Anisakiasis Anisakis simplex Food-borne zoonosis One Health Parasite Seafood safety

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

References:

[1]	Slifko, T.R., Smith, H.V., and Rose, J.B., "Emerging parasite zoonoses associated with water and food", International Journal of Parasitology, 30, 1379–1393. 2000.
[2]	Pal, M., Zoonoses, 2nd ed., Satyam Publishers, Jaipur, India. 2007.
[3]	Dorny, P., Praet, N., Deckers, N., and Gabriel, S., "Emerging foodborne parasites", Veterinary Parasitology, 163, 196–206. 2009.
[4]	Pal, M., "Linguatulosis: a widely prevalent parasitic zoonosis", International Research Journal of Animal and Veterinary Sciences, 1, 11–13. 2019.
[5]	Pal, M., "Amoebiasis: an important foodborne disease of global public health concern", Archives of Nutrition and Public Health, 2, 1–3. 2020.
[6]	Pal, M., "Clonorchiasis: an emerging foodborne disease of public health concern", Journal of Nutrition and Food Processing, 3(1).
[7]	Audicana, M.T., and Kennedy, M.W., "Anisakis simplex: from obscure infectious worm to inducer of immune hypersensitivity", Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 21(2), 360–379. 2008.
[8]	Hochberg, N.S., Hamer, D.H., Hughes, J.M., and Wilson, M.E., "Anisakidosis: perils of the deep", Clinical Infectious Diseases, 51(7), 806–812. 2010.
[9]	Destoumieux-Garzón, D., Mavingui, P., Boetsch, G., Boissier, J., Darriet, F., Duboz, P., Fritsch, C., Giraudoux, P., Le Roux, F., Morand, S., and Paillard, C., "The One Health concept: 10 years old and a long road ahead", Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 5, 14. 2018.
[10]	World Health Organization (WHO), Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH), and United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), "One Health Joint Plan of Action (2022–2026)". 2022.
[11]	Nonković, D., Tešić, V., Šimat, V., Karabuva, S., Medić, A., and Hrabar, J., "Anisakidae and anisakidosis: a public health perspective", Pathogens, 14 (3), 217. 2025.
[12]	EFSA Panel on Biological Hazards (BIOHAZ), "Scientific opinion on risk assessment of parasites in fishery products", EFSA Journal, 8 (4), 1543. 2010.
[13]	Sciortino, C., Giamporcaro, G., Sgroi, F., Costantino, S., Giuffrida, A., Virga, A.N., Bacarella, S., Forgia, S., Di Natale, A., and Modica, F., "Fish consumption and Anisakis risk: an exploratory study of Sicilian consumer awareness", Food and Humanity, 5, 100668. 2025.
[14]	Audicana, M.T., Ansotegui, I.J., de Corres, L.F., and Kennedy, M.W., "Anisakis simplex: dangerous dead and alive", Trends in Parasitology, 18 (1), 20–25. 2002.
[15]	Klimpel, S., and Palm, H.W., "Anisakid nematode (Ascaridoidea) life cycles and distribution: increasing zoonotic potential in the time of climate change?", Progress in Parasitology, Parasitology Research Monographs, 2, 201–222. 2011.
[16]	Awad, D.A., Masoud, H.A., and Hamad, A., "Climate changes and food-borne pathogens: the impact on human health and mitigation strategy", Climatic Change, 177(6), 92. 2024.
[17]	FAO/WHO, "Multicriteria-based ranking for risk management of foodborne parasites", Food and Agriculture Organization/World Health Organization Report. 2014.
[18]	Nieuwenhuizen, N.E., and Lopata, A.L., "Anisakis: a food-borne parasite that triggers allergic host defences", International Journal for Parasitology, 43 (12–13), 1047–1057. 2013.
[19]	Ramos, P., Ayra-Pardo, C., Oliveira, M.M., Rangel, L.F., Atroch, F., Caner, S., and Santos, M.J., "Anisakis spp. larvae in black scabbardfish (Aphanopus carbo) muscle: consumer health risk and recommendations along the value chain", Food and Waterborne Parasitology, e00305. 2025.
[20]	CDC. "Anisakiasis", DPDx – Laboratory Identification of Parasitic Diseases of Public Health Concern. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, January. 2022.
[21]	Mattiucci, S., Cipriani, P., Paoletti, M., Levsen, A., Nascetti, G., and Lodola, M., "Anisakiasis and anisakid nematodes: from basic knowledge to clinical practice", Food and Waterborne Parasitology, 12, e00042. 2018.
[22]	García-Gallego, A., Puchal-Mejías, A., Gallén, S., Brotons, J.M., Ruiz-García, D., Pool, R., Fraija-Fernández, N., and Aznar, F.J., "Anisakis spp. and Skrjabinisakis spp. infections in teleosts, cephalopods and cetaceans from the western Mediterranean: an integrated food-web perspective", Journal of Sea Research, 102697. 2026.
[23]	Bao, M., Pierce, G.J., Pascual, S., González-Muñoz, M., Mattiucci, S., Mladineo, I., Cipriani, P., Bušelić, I., and Strachan, N.J., "Assessing the risk of an emerging zoonosis of worldwide concern: anisakiasis", Scientific Reports, 7 (1), 43699. 2017.
[24]	Sazali, M.F., "Importance of hazard analysis critical control points (HACCP): A review", BEJ, 5 (1). December. 2024.
[25]	Rahmati, A.R., Kiani, B., Afshari, A., Moghaddas, E., Williams, M., and Shamsi, S., "World-wide prevalence of Anisakis larvae in fish and its relationship to human allergic anisakiasis: a systematic review", Parasitology Research, 119 (11), 3585–3594. 2020.
[26]	Fornell-Perez, R., Urizar-Gorosarri, M., Martinez-Urabayen, U., and Perez-Bea, M., "Evaluation of imaging findings in gastrointestinal anisakiasis in emergency CT and ultrasound", Insights into Imaging, 14 (1), 187. 2023.
[27]	Audicana, M.T., "Anisakis: something is moving inside the fish", Pathogens, 11(3), 326. 2022.
[28]	Isola, S., Zumbo, E., Dimasi, F., Minciullo, P.L., and Gangemi, S., "Allergic anisakiasis: an integrated review of human, animal and cellular evidence", Biomolecules, 16 (5), 648. 2026.
[29]	López-Moreno, D., Valmaseda-Angulo, M., Hernández-Orts, J.S., Cruz-Barraza, J.A., Marín-Enríquez, E., Sánchez-Cárdenas, R., Morales-Serna, F.N., et al., "Occurrence and molecular identification of anisakid nematodes in anchovies from the Gulf of California, Mexico", Food Control, 111657. 2025.
[30]	Sugiyama, H., Shiroyama, M., Morishima, Y., Wang, D., and Namihira, T., "Pulsed power treatment demonstrates complete inactivation of anisakid larvae in agar penetration and rabbit infection tests", Parasitology Research, 124: 143, 2025.