Factors Influencing the Spatial Distribution of Land Surface Temperature Dynamics in Birendranagar Municipality of Nepal

Diva Pradhan^1, and Dr. Jaya Ram Karki²

¹Environment/GIS Consultant, Genesis Consultancy, Lalitpur, Nepal

²Faculty, Climate change, School of Environmental Science and Management, Kathmandu, Nepal

Cite this paper:
Diva Pradhan and Dr. Jaya Ram Karki. Factors Influencing the Spatial Distribution of Land Surface Temperature Dynamics in Birendranagar Municipality of Nepal. Applied Ecology and Environmental Sciences. 2025; 13(1):1-9. doi: 10.12691/aees-13-1-1

Abstract

Nepal is urbanizing rapidly despite its status as one of the world's least urbanized countries. Here, urbanization is marked by unplanned growth, weak policies, inadequate law enforcement, and political interference, contributing to increased land surface temperatures (LST) in municipal and metropolitan areas. Primary data for the study is derived from satellite imagery provided by the USGS, while secondary land use data is sourced from Nepalese government records and updated through fieldwork. The minimum observed LST is 19°C, and the maximum is 37°C, calculated using brightness temperature values and appropriate conversion equations or models. This study examines LST distribution across different land uses (cropland, forest, and built-up areas) within municipalities, noting that urban areas generally exhibit higher LST values compared to rural areas. Factors such as proximity to water bodies, vegetation index (NDVI), and elevation are analyzed. The study area of Birendranagar Municipality covers two sample areas: one encompassing entire municipalities and another focused on the riverside buffer zone. Key findings reveal a positive correlation between LST and distance to water bodies in large samples and a negative correlation in smaller samples. LST is notably higher in built-up areas than in agricultural and forested areas. LST is inversely proportional to altitude and NDVI. The study recommends that future urban planning carefully consider LST dynamics and their relationship with water bodies to mitigate temperature rise challenges.

Keywords:
Land surface temperature Water sources Land use Spatial Distribution

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