Wheat-Paddy Straw Biochar: An Ecological Solution of Stubble Burning in the Agroecosystems of Punjab and Haryana Region, India, A Synthesis

Diksha Tokas¹, Siril Singh^{1, 2}, Rajni Yadav¹, Pardeep Kumar¹, Sheenu Sharma¹ and Anand Narain Singh^1,

¹Soil Ecosystem and Restoration Ecology Lab, Department of Botany, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160014, India

²Department of Environment Studies, Panjab University Chandigarh-160014

Cite this paper:
Diksha Tokas, Siril Singh, Rajni Yadav, Pardeep Kumar, Sheenu Sharma and Anand Narain Singh. Wheat-Paddy Straw Biochar: An Ecological Solution of Stubble Burning in the Agroecosystems of Punjab and Haryana Region, India, A Synthesis. Applied Ecology and Environmental Sciences. 2021; 9(6):613-625. doi: 10.12691/aees-9-6-6

Abstract

The Rice-Wheat cropping system (RWS) is the predominant agricultural system in northern India, especially in Punjab and Haryana. About 90% of agricultural land in Punjab and Haryana is indulged in the intensive RWS cropping system. The major constraint in this system is the short time interval between rice harvesting and the sowing of wheat. The preparation of the field for the wheat crop requires the removal of stubble, and farmers burn the stubble to get rid of it as there is a lack of any other proper management strategy or alternative use of stubble. Stubble burning is a significant source of pollutants causing severe damage to human health and the environment. The appropriate stubble management could provide immense economic benefits to the farmers and guard the environment against pollution. There is a dire need for alternative solutions to stubble burning. Some alternative management practices include the direct incorporation of the stubble into the soil, stubble as fuel, raw material for pulp and paper industries, or biomass for biofuel production. Since biochar is an effective tool for the utilization of stubble into a carbon-rich source, it can further be utilized in the agroecosystems because of its potential to improve soil fertility, enhance soil carbon, and reduce fertilizer use efficiency and enhance agricultural productivity. Thus, biochar, with its immense benefits, helps in soil conditioning and is an excellent means of carbon stabilization. The stable aromatic structure of carbon is resistant to chemical processes such as oxidation to CO₂ or reduction to methane, making it a suitable means to act as a long-term carbon sink. We infer that biochar as an eco-friendly answer for this issue is an exceptionally viable soil conditioner that directly influences soil carbon, soil quality, crop production and food security, promoting economic and ecological benefits.

Keywords:
biochar stubble burning carbon stabilization agroecosystem

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/

References:

[1]	Abraham, A., Mathew, A. K., Sindhu, R., Pandey, A., and Binod, P. (2016). Potential of rice straw for bio-refining: an overview. Bioresource Technology, 215, 29-36.
[2]	Hiloidhari, M., Das, D., and Baruah, D. C. (2014). Bioenergy potential from crop residue biomass in India. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 32, 504-512.
[3]	Gadde, B., Bonnet, S., Menke, C., and Garivait, S. (2009). Air pollutant emissions from rice straw open field burning in India, Thailand and the Philippines. Environmental Pollution, 157(5), 1554-1558.
[4]	NPMCR. (2014). National Policy for Management of Crop Residues. Ministry of Agriculture. Government of India.
[5]	Lyngdoh, L., and Dhaliwal, R. K. (2018). Perception of Extension Personnel and Farmers towards Effecton Open Burning in Rice and Wheat Cropping System. Indian Journal of Ecology, 45(4), 881-887.
[6]	Choudhary, K. M., Jat, H. S., Nandal, D. P., Bishnoi, D. K., Sutaliya, J. M., Choudhary, M., and Jat, M. L. (2018). Evaluating alternatives to rice-wheat system in western Indo-Gangetic Plains: crop yields, water productivity and economic profitability. Field Crops Research, 218, 1-10.
[7]	Kumar, A., and Bhattacharya, T. (2020). Biochar: a sustainable solution. Environment, Development and Sustainability, 1-39.
[8]	Major, J., Rondon, M., Molina, D., Riha, S. J., and Lehmann, J. (2012). Nutrient leaching in a Colombian savanna Oxisol amended with biochar. Journal of Environmental Quality, 41(4), 1076-1086.
[9]	Kumar, A., Bhattacharya, T., Hasnain, S. M., Nayak, A. K., and Hasnain, S. (2020). Applications of biomass-derived materials for energy production, conversion, and storage. Materials Science for Energy Technologies.
[10]	Bhuvaneshwari, S., Hettiarachchi, H., and Meegoda, J. N. (2019). Crop residue burning in India: Policy challenges and potential solutions. International journal of environmental research and public health, 16(5), 832.
[11]	Naeem, M. A., Khalid, M., Ahmad, Z., and Naveed, M. (2016). Low pyrolysis temperature biochar improves growth and nutrient availability of Maize on typic calciargid. Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 47(1), 41-51.
[12]	Kamara, A., Kamara, H. S., and Kamara, M. S. (2015). Effect of rice straw biochar on soil quality and the early growth and biomass yield of two rice varieties. Agricultural Sciences, 6(08), 798.
[13]	Naeem, M. A., Khalid, M., Arshad, M., and Ahmad, R. (2014). Yield and nutrient composition of biochar produced from different feedstocks at varying pyrolytic temperatures. Pakistan Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 51(1).
[14]	Brassard, P., Godbout, S., and Raghavan, V. (2016). Soil biochar amendment as a climate change mitigation tool: key parameters and mechanisms involved. Journal of Environmental Management, 181, 484-497.
[15]	Izaurralde, R. C., Rosenberg, N. J., and Lal, R. (2001). Mitigation of climatic change by soil carbon sequestration: issues of science, monitoring, and degraded lands. Advances in Agronomy, 70, 1-75.
[16]	Dobermann, A., and Fairhurst, T. H. (2002). Rice straw management. Better Crops International, 16(1), 7-11.
[17]	Dobermann, A., and Witt, C. (2000). The potential impact of crop intensification on carbon and nitrogen cycling in intensive rice systems. Carbon and nitrogen dynamics in flooded soils, Proceedings of the workshop on carbon and nitrogen dynamics in flooded soils, Los Banos, Philippines, 19-22 April 1999 2000 pp.1-25.
[18]	Njie, M., Gomez, B. E., Hellmuth, M. E., Callaway, J. M., Jallow, B. P., and Droogers, P. (2006). Making economic sense of adaptation in upland cereal production systems in The Gambia, AIACC working paper 37, AIACC Project.
[19]	Bhattacharyya, R., Tuti, M. D., Bisht, J. K., Bhatt, J. C., and Gupta, H. S. (2012). Conservation tillage and fertilisation impact on soil aggregation and carbon pools in the Indian Himalayas under an irrigated rice-wheat rotation. Soil Science, 177(3), 218-228.
[20]	Sidhu, B. S., Rupela, O. P., Beri, V., and Joshi, P. K. (1998). Sustainability implications of burning rice-and wheat-straw in Punjab. Economic and Political Weekly, A163-A168.
[21]	Singh, K., and Rangnekar, D. V. (1986). Fibrous crop residues as animal feed in India. Rice straw and related feeds in ruminants’ ration, 111-116.
[22]	Badarinath, K. V. S., Chand, T. K., and Prasad, V. K. (2006). Agriculture crop residue burning in the Indo-Gangetic Plains–a study using IRS-P6 AWiFS satellite data. Current Science, 1085-1089.
[23]	Singh, B. P., Mundra, M. C., and Gupta, S. C. (2003). Productivity, stability and economics of various cropping systems in semi-arid ecosystem. Crop Research Hisar, 25(3), 472-477.
[24]	Sharma, A. R., Kharol, S. K., Badarinath, K. V. S., and Singh, D. (2010, February). Impact of agriculture crop residue burning on atmospheric aerosol loading–a study over Punjab State, India. In Annales Geophysicae, 28 (2), 367-379.
[25]	Jethva, H. T., Chand, D., Torres, O., Gupta, P., Lyapustin, A., and Patadia, F. (2018). Agricultural burning and air quality over northern India: a synergistic analysis using NASA’s A-train satellite data and ground measurements. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 18,125481.
[26]	Singh, D., Gupta, P. K., Pradhan, R., Dubey, A. K., and Singh, R. P. (2017). Discerning shifting irrigation practices from passive microwave radiometry over Punjab and Haryana. Journal of Water and Climate Change, 8(2), 303-319.
[27]	https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov.
[28]	Singh, G., Kant, Y., and Dadhwal, V. K. (2009). Remote sensing of crop residue burning in Punjab (India): a study on burned area estimation using multi-sensor approach. Geocarto International, 24(4), 273-292.
[29]	Sarkar, S., Singh, R. P., and Chauhan, A. (2018). Crop residue burning in northern India: Increasing threat to Greater India. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 123(13), 6920-6934.
[30]	Singh, K. (2009). Act to save groundwater in Punjab: Its impact on water table, electricity subsidy and environment. Agricultural Economics Research Review, 22(347-2016-16864), 365-386.
[31]	Singh, M., Sidhu, H. S., Humphreys, E., Thind, H. S., Jat, M. L., Blackwell, J., and Singh, V. (2015). Nitrogen management for zero till wheat with surface retention of rice residues in northwest India. Field Crops Research, 184, 183-191.
[32]	Tripathi, A., Mishra, A. K., and Verma, G. (2016). Impact of preservation of subsoil water act on groundwater depletion: the case of Punjab, India. Environmental Management, 58(1), 48-59.
[33]	Haq, Z. (2018). Why stubble burning in Haryana and Punjab has intensified in last 10 years, India news, Hindustan Times.
[34]	Gummert, M., Hung, N. V., Chivenge, P., and Douthwaite, B. (2020). Sustainable Rice Straw Management. Springer Nature, 192.
[35]	Singh, R. B., Saha, R. C., Singh, M., Chandra, D., Shukla, S. G., Walli, T. K., and Kessels, H. P. P. (1995). Rice straw, its production and utilisation in India. In Handbook for straw feeding systems in livestock production (pp. 325-339). ICAR.
[36]	Owen, E. (1994). Cereal crop residues as feed for goats and sheep. Livestock Research for Rural Development, 6(1), 13.
[37]	Prasad, C. S., Sampath, K. T., Shivaramaiah, M. T., and Walli, T. K. (1993). Dry matter intake, digestibility and supplementation of slender and coarse straws-a review. Proceedings of the international Work on Feeding Ruminants on Fibrous Crop Residues. Indian council of Agriculture research, New Delhi, India, 188-203.
[38]	Erenstein, O., Thorpe, W., Singh, J., and Varma, A. (2007). Crop-livestock interactions and livelihoods in the Trans-Gangetic Plains, India (Vol. 10). ILRI (aka ILCA and ILRAD).
[39]	Badarinath, K. V. S., Kharol, S. K., and Sharma, A. R. (2009). Long-range transport of aerosols from agriculture crop residue burning in Indo-Gangetic Plains—a study using LIDAR, ground measurements and satellite data. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, 71(1), 112-120.
[40]	Mittal, S. K., Singh, N., Agarwal, R., Awasthi, A., and Gupta, P. K. (2009). Ambient air quality during wheat and rice crop stubble burning episodes in Patiala. Atmospheric Environment, 43(2), 238-244.
[41]	Chandra, B. P., and Sinha, V. (2016). Contribution of post-harvest agricultural paddy residue fires in the NW Indo-Gangetic Plain to ambient carcinogenic benzenoids, toxic isocyanic acid and carbon monoxide. Environment International, 88, 187-197.
[42]	Kumar, P., Kumar, S., and Joshi, L. (2015). Socioeconomic and environmental implications of agricultural residue burning: A case study of Punjab, India (p. 144). Springer Nature.
[43]	Jain, N., Bhatia, A., and Pathak, H. (2014). Emission of air pollutants from crop residue burning in India. Aerosol and Air Quality Research, 14(1), 422-430.
[44]	Junpen, A., Pansuk, J., Kamnoet, O., Cheewaphongphan, P., and Garivait, S. (2018). Emission of air pollutants from rice residue open burning in Thailand, 2018. Atmosphere, 9(11), 449.
[45]	Gupta, P. K., Sahai, S., Singh, N., Dixit, C. K., Singh, D. P., Sharma, C., and Garg, S. C. (2004). Residue burning in Rice–wheat cropping system: Causes and implications. Current science, 1713-1717.
[46]	Yang, S. S., Liu, C. M., Lai, C. M., and Liu, Y. L. (2003). Estimation of methane and nitrous oxide emission from paddy fields and uplands during 1990-2000 in Taiwan. Chemosphere, 52(8), 1295-1305.
[47]	Jat, M. L., Kamboj, B. R., Sidhu, H. S., Singh, M., Bana, A., Bishnoi, D. K., and Gupta, R. (2013). Operational manual for turbo happy seeder: technology for managing crop residues with environmental stewardship.1-26.
[48]	Gupta, R. K., Naresh, R. K., Hobbs, P. R., Jiaguo, Z., and Ladha, J. K. (2003). Sustainability of post-Green Revolution agriculture: The Rice–wheat cropping systems of the Indo‐Gangetic Plains and China. Improving the Productivity and Sustainability of Rice‐Wheat Systems: Issues and Impacts, 65, 1-25.
[49]	Meyer, S., Glaser, B., and Quicker, P. (2011). Technical, economical, and climate-related aspects of biochar production technologies: a literature review. Environmental science & technology, 45(22), 9473-9483.
[50]	Cha, J. S., Park, S. H., Jung, S. C., Ryu, C., Jeon, J. K., Shin, M. C., and Park, Y. K. (2016). Production and utilisation of biochar: A review. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry, 40, 1-15.
[51]	Williams, E. K., Jones, D. L., Sanders, H. R., Benitez, G. V., and Plante, A. F. (2019). Effects of 7 years of field weathering on biochar recalcitrance and solubility. Biochar, 1(3), 237-248.
[52]	Plaimart, J., Acharya, K., Mrozik, W., Davenport, R. J., Vinitnantharat, S., and Werner, D. (2021). Coconut husk biochar amendment enhances nutrient retention by suppressing nitrification in agricultural soil following anaerobic digestate application. Environmental Pollution, 268, 115684.
[53]	Dong, Y., Wu, Z., Zhang, X., Feng, L., and Xiong, Z. (2019). Dynamic responses of ammonia volatilisation to different rates of fresh and field-aged biochar in a rice-wheat rotation system. Field Crops Research, 241, 107568.
[54]	Chan, K. Y., Van Zwieten, L., Meszaros, I., Downie, A., and Joseph, S. (2008). Agronomic values of greenwaste biochar as a soil amendment. Soil Research, 45(8), 629-634.
[55]	Spokas, K. A., Novak, J. M., and Venterea, R. T. (2012). Biochar’s role as an alternative N-fertilizer: ammonia capture. Plant and soil, 350(1), 35-42.
[56]	Novak, J. M., Lima, I., Xing, B., Gaskin, J. W., Steiner, C., Das, K. C. and Schomberg, H. (2009). Characterisation of designer biochar produced at different temperatures and their effects on a loamy sand. Annals of Environmental Science, 3, 195-206.
[57]	Dahlawi, S., Naeem, A., Rengel, Z., and Naidu, R. (2018). Biochar application for the remediation of salt-affected soils: Challenges and opportunities. Science of the Total Environment, 625, 320-335.
[58]	Singh, B.P., Cowie, A.L., and Smernik, R.J. (2012). Biochar carbon stability in a clayey soil as a function of feedstock and pyrolysis temperature. Environmental Science and Technology, 46:11770–11778.
[59]	Duan, M., Wu, F., Jia, Z., Wang, S., Cai, Y., and Chang, S. X. (2020). Wheat straw and its biochar differently affect soil properties and field-based greenhouse gas emission in a Chernozemic soil. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 56, 1023-1036.
[60]	Mohan, D., Abhishek, K., Sarswat, A., Patel, M., Singh, P., and Pittman, C. U. (2018). Biochar production and applications in soil fertility and carbon sequestration–a sustainable solution to crop-residue burning in India. RSC advances, 8(1), 508-520.
[61]	Cheng, F., and Li, X. (2018). Preparation and application of biochar-based catalysts for biofuel production. Catalysts, 8 (9), 346
[62]	Ahmad, M., Rajapaksha, A. U., Lim, J. E., Zhang, M., Bolan, N., Mohan, D., and Ok, Y. S. (2014). Biochar as a sorbent for contaminant management in soil and water: a review. Chemosphere, 99, 19-33.
[63]	Irfan, M., Ishaq, F., Muhammad, D., Khan, M.J., Mian, I.A., Dawar, K.M., Muhammad, A., Ahmad. M., Anwar, S., Ali, S., Khan, F.U., Khan, B., Bibi, H., Kamal, A., Musarat, M., Ullah, W., and Saeed., M. (2021). Effect of wheat straw derived biochar on the bioavailability of Pb, Cd and Cr using maize as test crop. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society, 25(5),101232.
[64]	Lou, L., Yao, L., Wang, L., He, Y., and Hu, B. (2015). Application of Rice-Straw Biochar and Microorganisms in Nonylphenol Remediation: Adsorption-Biodegradation Coupling Relationship and Mechanism. PLoS ONE, 10(9), e0137467.
[65]	Glaser, B., Lehmann, J., and Zech, W. (2002). Ameliorating physical and chemical properties of highly weathered soils in the tropics with charcoal–a review. Biology and fertility of soils, 35(4), 219-230.
[66]	Lehmann, J., da Silva, J. P., Steiner, C., Nehls, T., Zech, W., and Glaser, B. (2003). Nutrient availability and leaching in an archaeological Anthrosol and a Ferralsol of the Central Amazon basin: fertiliser, manure and charcoal amendments. Plant and Soil, 249(2), 343-357.
[67]	Lehmann, J., Gaunt, J., and Rondon, M. (2006). Bio-char sequestration in terrestrial ecosystems–a review. Mitigation and adaptation strategies for global change, 11(2), 403-427.
[68]	Naeem, M. A., Khalid, M., Aon, M., Abbas, G., Tahir, M., Amjad, M., and Akhtar, S. S. (2017). Effect of wheat and rice straw biochar produced at different temperatures on maise growth and nutrient dynamics of a calcareous soil. Archives of Agronomy and Soil Science, 63(14), 2048-2061.
[69]	Srinivasarao, C., Venkateswarlu, B., Lal, R., Singh, A. K., and Kundu, S. (2013). Sustainable management of soils of dryland ecosystems of India for enhancing agronomic productivity and sequestering carbon. Advances in Agronomy, 121, 253-329.
[70]	McHenry, M. P. (2009). Agricultural bio-char production, renewable energy generation and farm carbon sequestration in Western Australia: Certainty, uncertainty and risk. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 129(1-3), 1-7.
[71]	Goh, K. M. (2004). Carbon sequestration and stabilization in soils: Implications for soil productivity and climate change. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, 50(4), 467-476.
[72]	Gupta, D. K., Gupta, C. K., Dubey, R., Fagodiya, R. K., Sharma, G., Keerthika, A., and Shukla, A. K. (2020). Role of Biochar in Carbon Sequestration and Greenhouse Gas Mitigation. In Biochar Applications in Agriculture and Environment Management (pp. 141-165). Springer, Cham.
[73]	Iqbal, M. T., Ortaş, I., Ahmed, I. A., Isik, M., and Islam, M. S. (2019). Rice straw biochar amended soil improves wheat productivity and accumulated phosphorus in grain. Journal of Plant Nutrition, 42(14), 1605-1623.
[74]	Wang, H., Ren, T., Yang, H., Feng, Y., Feng, H., Liu, G., and Shi, H. (2020). Research and application of biochar in soil CO2 emission, fertility, and micro-organisms: A sustainable solution to solve China’s agricultural straw burning problem. Sustainability, 12(5), 1922.
[75]	Zhang, A., Bian, R., Pan, G., Cui, L., Hussain, Q., Li, L., and Yu, X. (2012). Effects of biochar amendment on soil quality, crop yield and greenhouse gas emission in a Chinese rice paddy: a field study of 2 consecutive Rice growing cycles. Field Crops Research, 127, 153-160.
[76]	Cheng, C. H., Lehmann, J., Thies, J. E., and Burton, S. D. (2008). Stability of black carbon in soils across a climatic gradient. Journal of Geophysical Research: Biogeosciences, 113.
[77]	Santos, F., Torn, M. S., and Bird, J. A. (2012). Biological degradation of pyrogenic organic matter in temperate forest soils. Soil Biology and Biochemistry, 51, 115-124.
[78]	Butnan S, Deenik JL, Toomsan B., and Vityakon P. (2017). Biochar properties affecting carbon stability in soils contrasting in texture and mineralogy. Agriculture and Natural Resources, 51(6), 492-8.
[79]	Debela, F., Thring, R. W., and Arocena, J. M. (2012). Immobilisation of heavy metals by co-pyrolysis of contaminated soil with woody biomass. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 223(3), 1161-1170.
[80]	Yin, Y. F., He, X. H., Ren, G. A. O., and Yang, Y. S. (2014). Effects of rice straw and its biochar addition on soil labile carbon and soil organic carbon. Journal of Integrative Agriculture, 13(3), 491-498.
[81]	Wang, D., Fonte, S. J., Parikh, S. J., Six, J., and Scow, K. M. (2017). Biochar additions can enhance soil structure and the physical stabilization of C in aggregates. Geoderma, 303, 110-117.
[82]	Agegnehu, G., Bass, A. M., Nelson, P. N., and Bird, M. I. (2016). Benefits of biochar, compost and biochar–compost for soil quality, Maize yield and greenhouse gas emissions in a tropical agricultural soil. Science of the Total Environment, 543, 295-306.
[83]	Rondon, M. A., Lehmann, J., Ramírez, J., and Hurtado, M. (2007). Biological nitrogen fixation by common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) increases with bio-char additions. Biology and fertility of soils, 43(6), 699-708.
[84]	Oguntunde, P. G., Abiodun, B. J., Ajayi, A. E., and van de Giesen, N. (2008). Effects of charcoal production on soil physical properties in Ghana. Journal of Plant Nutrition and Soil Science, 171(4), 591-596.
[85]	Madiba, O. F., Solaiman, Z. M., Carson, J. K., and Murphy, D. V. (2016). Biochar increases availability and uptake of phosphorus to wheat under leaching conditions. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 52(4), 439-446.
[86]	Abel, S., Peters, A., Trinks, S., Schonsky, H., Facklam, M., and Wessolek, G. (2013). Impact of biochar and hydrochar addition on water retention and water repellency of sandy soil. Geoderma, 202, 183-191.
[87]	Atkinson, C. J., Fitzgerald, J. D., and Hipps, N. A. (2010). Potential mechanisms for achieving agricultural benefits from biochar application to temperate soils: a review. Plant and Soil, 337(1), 1-18.
[88]	Rajkovich, S., Enders, A., Hanley, K., Hyland, C., Zimmerman, A. R., and Lehmann, J. (2012). Corn growth and nitrogen nutrition after additions of biochars with varying properties to a temperate soil. Biology and Fertility of Soils, 48(3), 271-284.
[89]	Biederman, L. A., and Harpole, W. S. (2013). Biochar and its effects on plant productivity and nutrient cycling: a meta-analysis. GCB bioenergy, 5(2), 202-214.
[90]	Gaskin, J. W., Speir, R. A., Harris, K., Das, K. C., Lee, R. D., Morris, L. A., and Fisher, D. S. (2010). Effect of peanut hull and pine chip biochar on soil nutrients, corn nutrient status, and yield. Agronomy Journal, 102(2), 623-633.
[91]	Whitbread, A., Blair, G., Konboon, Y., Lefroy, R., and Naklang, K. (2003). Managing crop residues, fertilisers and leaf litters to improve soil C, nutrient balances, and the grain yield of rice and wheat cropping systems in Thailand and Australia. Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment, 100(2-3), 251-263.
[92]	Puget, P., and Lal, R. (2005). Soil organic carbon and nitrogen in a Mollisol in central Ohio as affected by tillage and land use. Soil and Tillage Research, 80(1-2), 201-213.
[93]	Debory, B. (2017). Crop residue burning: This is more than a residual problem, says Bibek Debroy. Financial Express, June 15, 2017.