The rapid expansion of antibacterial nanomaterials has been driven by the assumption that nanoscale antimicrobials are intrinsically resistant to bacterial adaptation, reinforcing a kill-centric view of antimicrobial efficacy. Accumulating evidence now demonstrates that sublethal and chronic exposure to antibacterial nanomaterials under clinically and environmentally relevant conditions can promote bacterial tolerance, persistence, and adaptive survival. In this Review, we synthesize experimental and conceptual studies showing that conventional evaluation frameworks, particularly minimum inhibitory concentration–based metrics, repeatedly fail to capture these adaptive responses. An argument about antibacterial nanomaterials should be reconceptualized as evolutionary interventions whose long-term performance is governed by the selective pressure landscapes they generate. We outline an adaptation-aware design framework linking nanomaterial properties to exposure dynamics and predictable evolutionary outcomes, and discuss how temporal control, multimodal strategies, and biofilm-informed design can mitigate maladaptive trajectories. Recognizing bacterial adaptation as the rule rather than the exception is essential for developing sustainable nano-enabled antimicrobial strategies. Here, we argue that antibacterial nanomaterials should be understood and evaluated primarily as evolutionary pressure–shaping interventions rather than as resistance-proof bactericidal agents.

Antibacterial nanomaterials, Selective pressure, Bacterial tolerance, Adaptive evolution, Evolution-aware design