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The Barbary Pirate States of the Mediterranean in the XVI-XIX Centuries

Nguyen Duy Quy, Nguyen Thai Binh, Nguyen Thi Kim Tien*

The University of Danang – University of Science and Education

Abstract: The Barbary pirate states were the fear of European and American countries in the XVI - XIX centuries when carrying out trading activities through the Mediterranean. The European and American countries with terror carried out annual tribute activities to the Barbary states to buy peace and ensure security for commercial activities at sea. Based on historical and logical methods, this article aims to present the basic problems related to history of Barbary pirate states from the XVI to XIX centuries. This article focuses on the following aspects: (1) geographical location, inhabitants, and names; (2) state apparatus organization and domestic policy; (3) foreign policy. The article contributes to providing more historical development of the Barbary pirate states in history.

Keywords: Barbary, Mediterranean, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Tripoli, pirate

Received May 13, 2023; Revised June 16, 2023; Accepted June 27, 2023

Citation: Nguyen Duy Quy, Nguyen Thai Binh, Nguyen Thi Kim Tien, The Barbary Pirate States of the Mediterranean in the XVI-XIX Centuries. World Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 9 (2). 70-73. January 2023. doi:10.12691/wjssh-9-2-4

1. Introduction

The Barbary pirate states were a collection of North African states with loose allegiance to the Ottoman Empire. In history, Barbary pirates in the Mediterranean region were seen as terrors spread. by the Barbary pirate states between the sixteenth and nineteenth centuries. From four bases in North Africa, Algeria, Tunis, Tripoli and various ports in Morocco, Barbary pirates terrorized seafaring merchants, posing threats to maritime security and commerce in the Mediterranean region. Sea and transatlantic. Aside from the brutality, the Barbary pirate state remains a matter of little known by researchers. In recent years, Barbary pirates have had a number of studies on this topic such as: The early modern ottomans remapping the Empire, Cambridge University Press (Aksan, V. H., Goffman, D.); A History of the Ottoman Empire to 1730, Cambridge University Press (Cook, M. A.); Barbary legend. war, trade and piracy in North Africa, 1415-1830, Clarendon Press (Fisher, G.); The Barbary Pirate, Sterling Publications (Forester, C. S.); Lords of the Sea: A History of the Barbary Corsairs, Reaktion Books Ltd (Jamieson, A. G.). These works have initially analyzed the nature and brutality of the Barbary state in its relations with other countries. The basic problems of the state of Barbary in terms of administrative organization, domestic and foreign policy have not been analyzed, or presented fully and systematically..

2. Results and Discussion

2.1. Geographical Location, Population, and Names

Barbary is located on the coast of North Africa, including Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, and Tripoli. Barbary was named by Europeans in the XVI century based on the fact that the lands of North Africa were inhabited by Barbers, who lived as pirates on the Mediterranean coast and in the Northeast Atlantic [1].

During the 18th century, the Barbary population included Turks, Arabs, Moors and Jews [1]. The Turks are politically stronger than other groups, despite their smaller population. Jews were considered an ethnic minority, discriminated against, and treated with contempt under Muslim leaders [2]. Some historians estimate the population of Barbary based on several letters and reports sent by consuls, and European and American officers who were appointed to Barbary. An English officer who served in Morocco in the early eighteenth-century reports that there were no more than two million inhabitants there. In Algeria, in 1796, American agent Joel Barlow sent a letter to the Secretary of State, in which he indicated that there were between two and three million people there. In another report, the population of Tunisia is estimated to be larger than that of the city of Algeria, while Tripoli has the least population of the three cities [1].

Barbary pirates concentrated on the North African coast from west to east. These coastal areas stretch for 2,000 miles [3]. This strategic position allowed them to control the Mediterranean Sea and attack unarmed coastal towns in Spain, Italy, and Greece.

Barbary comes from the name of the Berber people - a warlike tribe living on the coast of North Africa. They interspersed with the Arabs who poured in from the East during the first century of Muslim expansion. The original ethnic origin of the Berbers remains uncertain. Many believe that "Berber" comes from the Italian word Barbaro, which is derived from the Latin Barbarus, which simply means "barbarian". By the 16th century, the European term "Barbary" was in regular use as a common name for Berber lands [4]. The sixteenth century could be said to be the heyday of Barbary pirates when their chiefs emerged as the true rulers of the Barbary states, whose reach extended far beyond the western Mediterranean boundaries. Sea. The Barbary states thrived on profits from raiding and pillaging and extended their power into the African hinterland as far as the edge of the Sahara. By the mid-seventeenth century, the European powers began to try to curb Barbary pirates' damaging activities through naval activity and diplomatic initiatives. From that point on it became clear that Barbary piracy's heyday was over, albeit with a temporary "revival" as the European powers were distracted by major continental wars.

While most Christians refer to them as pirates, the "seafarers hunt". That is, in Western terms, seafarers who have been licensed by the state as a "private warrior" to attack the state's maritime enemies. If such a captain can obtain a spoil that is deemed lawful by a state court, then he can keep the ship, the cargo on board, and in this case, the crew. crew - who were sold into slavery. In return, the state will receive a portion of the profits from this.

Thus, it can be considered that Barbary is a general term referring to the countries in North Africa including Morocco, Angola, Tunisia and Tripoli. These countries are considered descendants of the Ottoman Empire based mainly on piracy. These countries were born quite early and their activities became large-scale from the seventeenth to the nineteenth centuries.

2.2. State Organization and Domestic Policy

The Ottoman rulers of Constantinople, the capital of Türkiye, appointed in each region of Barbary a ruler who could administer on behalf of the Sultan. In Algeria, the ruler is named "Dey", in Tunisia as "Bey", and in Tripoli as "Pasha" or "Bashaw". In the independent territories of Northern Morocco, the ruler was made emperor [4].

Immediately after the appointment of rulers, political relations between the Turkish Sultans and the rulers of the North African kingdoms began to decline. It is a matter of the remote geographical distance between North Africa and Türkiye. The rudimentary means of communication made it impossible for the Sultans to perform administrative duties in both their states and in North Africa at the same time. Later, the rulers of Barbary found themselves isolated, receiving no instructions from the Turks. They began to self-manage and form their heads into regions. Thus, when Türkiye no longer appointed rulers, Barbary rulers began to succeed each other in governing the state. The succession to power in parts of Barbary was built solely on schemes such as coups and violence for one regime to abolish the other.

The rulers of Barbary appointed dignitaries as chief infantry commanders. They already have a strong position as delegates in the state. These people are called Agas, Kiaya and Bey respectively in Algeria, Tunisia and Tripoli. The Agas in Algeria are supported by Janissaries and bodyguards. In Tunisia, Kiaya will receive the support of the second Kiaya and in Tripoli, the Bash Mamlukes will be Bey's assistant. The armed forces of Tripoli consisted of Kuloghlus and Arabs. Tunisia's armed forces consisted of a militia of eight thousand men at the end of the eighteenth century. Unlike Tripoli and Tunisia, the Odjak in Algeria is a militia that represents the majority of the armed forces. It consisted of eight to ten thousand mostly local men and rebels who had converted from Christianity to Islam.

As for domestic policy, Dey of Algiers, Bey of Tunis and Bashaw of Tripoli governed their states by appointing a group of confidants known to the French as "Puissance". The role of these men was to look after the military and civil affairs of their states. Judicial affairs are managed by Sahib At-Tabaa, who holds the seal. He was assisted by Bash kătib, the chief secretary, who was interested in relations between the Kaid province and foreign states. The job of the secretary is to register records of decisions, financial statements and customs duties. All of these people live in the city. Financially, a man named Khaznadji was appointed to manage the state coffers. To obtain revenue for the state coffers, the rulers established an administrative authority for the city and hinterland of his state to impose taxes on Arabs, Berbers, Moors, Turkish and Jewish using a small garrison called Mehalla. visit the areas once a year. To simplify tax collection, each state is divided into three regions. Each region had a government representative called khojet El-Kheil, and Kaid, who was in charge of receiving horses from the heads of the tribes inland to use them in wars. All taxes and supplies collected from these districts are stored to separate them according to state usage. A portion of these supplies will be sent to the monarchs in the Sublime Porte. In fact, the length of each ruler in Barbary depended on how much supply he could amass, the longer he accumulated the longer he remained in power.

Military forces known as Janissaries are serving in three Barbary states. To exert pressure in these states, the Janissaries were formally recruited by the Sultan. Their function was to control commerce, and for this purpose, not only fleets but also entire states were established. The existence of those soldiers in Tripoli and Tunisia is crucial. In Algeria, there are about 10,000 professional Janissaries. With such a force, it became the strongest and most dangerous pirate nest [5]. Northern Morocco in the seventeenth century was ruled by the Alawite Emperor. He created a central administration and a proper tax system to manage the monarch's economy. The emperor also established an army of Janissaries-like slaves called black guards, who were loyal to the emperor's men. The independent kingdom of Northern Morocco faced internal problems due to endless disputes with local rulers. When the Alawite dynasty came to power, they excessively restricted the power of local rulers, restoring the political unity of the dynasty.

2.3. Foreign Policy

In terms of foreign affairs, the Barbary pirates have a special relationship with a few European countries and the United States. They have shaped foreign policy. Raiding ships, seizing both people and goods, was considered an essential resource for the pirates to survive. Although some European countries and the United States found it profitable to trade worldwide through the crossing of the Mediterranean, they were not able to do so easily, mainly due to the relationship between the two countries. threatened Barbary pirate domination here [5]. After several centuries of Muslim rule in Spain, the Christians attacked and took control of Granada in 1492, prompting the Muslims to flee to North Africa [6]. This attack created tension among the Muslims who decided to join the pirates for revenge. As a result, the number of Barbary pirates increased significantly and to put an end to this escalation, several military and naval expeditions were launched by European countries such as Spain, Portugal, France, Italy and Spain. Britain was sent to try to curb the maritime activities of these pirates [7]. But in the face of the growing threat of Barbary pirates, European countries had to think about making peace with them or going to war. In fact, each European country had its policies against Barbary pirates.

On the Spanish side, after the fall of Muslim rule in Spain, King Castilian Ferdinand - ruler of Spain managed to conquer the coastal territory of North Africa in 1497. Algeria in 1505, Oran in 1509, and Tripoli in 1510. During clashes between the Spanish army and the inhabitants of North Africa, an estimated 10,000 Muslims were killed and several others captured. Oran became a Spanish naval base armed with cannons and muskets after killing a third of the Muslim population. This mission was carried out under Cardinal Cisneros, who converted two mosques into Catholic churches. In response to the Spanish invasion, in the early 16th century, the Ottomans decided to end Spanish domination of the North African coast from Tangiers in the West to Tripoli in the East. The brothers Aruj (1474-1518) and Khayreddine (1483-1546) set up pirate fleets to capture as many Spanish ships as possible [8]. In 1516, armed with 5000 men and cannons, Aruj captured Algeria after deposing King Ferdinand's representative in the area. But Aruj was unable to remain in power because he was killed along with 1500 of his men by Charles II in 1518, who sent 10,000 troops to fight the Barbarossa brothers' authority in Algeria. Soon after, Khayreddine succeeded his brother and received support from Sultan Selim I, who in turn provided him with 2,000 men and appointed him Governor-General of Algeria.

The Portuguese, they were always trying to protect and control the growing threat from Barbary pirates. The Portuguese had their stronghold over the city of Tangier. However, the Portuguese presence in Tangier was disturbed by constant conflict between their armies and the Moors. Therefore, Portugal decided to get rid of the city of Tangiers by giving it to England as a marriage gift for the Portuguese princess Catherine to Charles II in 1662. But in 1684 the Moors were able to take control of their city again [9]. For the French, French ships were easy prey to capture by Barbary pirates. To get these ships back, France signed a treaty with Morocco. The treaty secured transportation for the expansion of French trade in the Atlantic.

In 1635, in Algeria, a French mission failed to free three hundred and forty-seven captives from the Barbary camps. Those captives were bought cheaply on the Barbary slave market. So, ten years later, out of nationalist sympathy for the French detainees, France declared war on Algeria. French weapons and ships were also captured by the pirate ships of Algeria. However, the capture of the French military ships was unsuccessful. In 1683, Admiral Abraham Duquesne (1610–1688), a French naval officer, bombarded the city of Algeria with six thousand different ammunition and killed eighty thousand people. This attack infuriated the Algerian pirates. So they pushed the 21 Frenchmen, loaded them into the muzzles, and fired back at the French fleet [7]. In 1689, another French attack on the town of Algeria was arranged by sending a fleet of warships to overwhelm the Algerian pirates, but the pirates won. Six ships were confiscated and forty-four French were captured and sold into slavery. To settle this dispute, a peace treaty was signed in 1692 with Algeria for a period of one hundred years. In 1729, Tripoli adopted a similar treaty [10]. As for Italy, it is the weakest of the European nations which Barbary considers a bargain to be easily exploited. In the late sixteenth century, Italian regions such as Venice and Genoa provided warships and treasure to satisfy Barbary's demands, paid in exchange for their trade in the Mediterranean. To ensure security, they signed three peace treaties in 1540, 1566 and 1575 [8].

Besides the continental European countries, Britain's relationship with the Barbary states is also very prominent. British ships spread around the world freely and safely due to their powerful navy. Even so, Britain was forced to follow the same tribute system for protection that the former European countries had to apply. In 1662, Britain signed treaties with Tunisia and Tripoli. The treaties provided free trade for British merchants and selected British consuls as arbitrators for international disputes between Barbary and other nations [10]. In addition, another treaty was signed by the Commander of the British Navy, Sir John Narborough, with Tripoli to release several British prisoners previously held in conflicts and to establish lasting relations. tight between the two sides [10]. He tried to establish a good relationship with Barbary. This relationship was strengthened when Charles II and Dey of Algeria signed a treaty of peace and commerce in 1682, which stated that English ships could enter the port of Algeria, or any port or location. another point of that state in a safe manner, where they can trade freely. They could also freely pass through sea traffic without any search, and no British people were trafficked or enslaved in any part of the state of Algeria. In 1716, Vice Admiral John Baker created a kind of British transit passport with Barbary so that it would prevent any unauthorized conduct by the Barbarians against their ships or merchants. This passport granted British ships special trade privileges in Tunisia, Algiers, Tripoli and Morocco. Therefore, these ships were automatically released after being recognized as belonging to Britain. For example, one hundred and fifty-two captives were released by Dey of Algeria in 1738.

3. Conclusion

The Barbary state was a common name for the countries of North Africa that live by piracy. These states had connections to the Ottoman Empire. The country's political organization is the Islamic military state. Since the sixteenth century, the Barbary state has had a stricter state organization, having foreign relations with many European countries. In it, the relationship between the Barbary states and the European state was a conflict of interest related to annual tribute, ransom and slavery. Barbary Pirates is a real state with all elements of domestic and foreign policy, state apparatus and territory. Barbary states reached their peak between the XVI and XIX centuries.

Acknowledgements

This research is funded by Funds for Science and Technology Development of the University of Danang under project number B2022-DN03-05.

References

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[2]   | Russell, M, History and Present Condition of the Barbary States, Oliver & Boyd, Edinburgh, 1835.
[3]   | Chidsey, D.B, The Wars in Barbary: Arab Piracy and the Birth of the United States Navy, New York: Crown Publishers Inc., 1971.
[4]   | Centuries, A, The Barbary Pirates 15th–17th Centuries, Bloomsbury Publishing, 2016.
[5]   | Panzac, D, The Barbary Corsairs: The End of a Legend, 1800-1820, Brill Academic Publishersm 2004.
[6]   | Goodin, B, “Opportunities of Empire: Three Barbary Captives and American Nation-Building, 1770-1840”, PhD Thesis, Australian National University, 2015.
[7]   | Wheelan, J, Jefferson's War America's First War on Terror 1801-1805, Carroll & Graf, New York, 2004.
[8]   | Asgoston, G., Masters, B, Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire, Facts on File, Inc, 2009.
[9]   | Fremont-Barnes, G., The Wars of the Barbary Pirates, to the shores of Tripoli: The Rise of the US Navy and Marines, Osprey Publishing, 2006.
[10]   | De Montmorency, J.E.G, “The Barbary States in International Law”, Transactions of the Grotius Society, 4. 87-94, 1918.