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Angel, Heroine and Demon: Feminine Cultural Types of American Discourse at the Turn of the 20th Century

Svitlana Lyubymova

Foreign Languages Department, Odessa National Polytechnic University, Ukraine

Abstract: Considered in the article from Lotman’s semiotic of culture, female cultural types are represented by angel, demon and heroine in American literary discourse at the turn of the 20th century. Condensed and coded information of a cultural type develops on the background of a cultural context, in which literary texts fulfill the function of descriptive mechanisms. Cultural types are symbols of a national cultural experience. In the discourse, they are represented by sets of moral and physical qualities attributed by the society to a certain kind of women. Cultural types modify under the influence of social changes and at the same time, they affect standards and norms accepted in the society. The alteration of feminine cultural types means profound social and cultural changes.

Keywords: cultural type, symbol, cultural context, image

Citation: Svitlana Lyubymova, Angel, Heroine and Demon: Feminine Cultural Types of American Discourse at the Turn of the 20th Century. Journal of Linguistics and Literature, 1 (1). 11-15. January 2017. doi:10.12691/jll-1-1-3

1. Introduction

As a variety of a sociocultural stereotype, a cultural type is based on a semiotic experience and cumulative work of nation on preservation of important for a society cultural phenomenon. Manifested in literary discourse, feminine cultural types appear as the results of artistic rethinking of social roles fulfilled by women in a certain historic period. Feminine cultural types conform with the society’s demands to appearance, moral qualities, behavior and occupation of women.

Created in a literary discourse the world-picture, though reflects the reality to a major degree, is interpretation of writers that represent certain social and cultural standards. Thus, realized in a semiotic reality of discourse, images are results of semiosis.

Semiotic nature of images were studied by M. Bakhtin, R. Barthes, C. Lévi-Strauss and other prominent scholars, who assume that cultural images can be interpreted in contexts by means of language.

A recognizable image of a definite culture is a cultural type, which is a conventional idea of a stable mental image of an object. In terms of H. Putnam’s concept of a stereotype, cultural types can be determined as “standardized description of features of the kind that are typical or normal” [[13], p 147]. From the view point of J. Bartmiński, cultural types are reflections of a socio-cultural reality coded and interpreted by linguistic signs [[1], p 7-9].

Cultural, semiotic and historic aspects of cultural types are intertwined and interdependent. The study of a symbolic nature of cultural types involves cultural peculiarities’ analysis of discourse-based images in a specific period of national history.

Semiotic and historic dimensions of culture were combined by Yuri M. Lotman in his cultural semiotics, the basic premise of which is that culture can be seen as mutual interaction of semiotic systems of differing structures. By analogy with the biosphere (the layer of the Earth where life exists) of Vladimir I. Vernadsky, Lotman coined the term “semiosphere” to denote “the semiotic space necessary for the existence and functioning of languages; in a sense the semiosphere has a prior existence and is in constant interaction with languages” [[9], p123]. The semiosphere is the result and development of culture. All elements of culture, including cultural types, “are in dynamic, not static, correlations whose terms are constantly changing” [[9], p127].

Images created in literary works are symbols that are drawn by writers “from the arsenal of epoch, cultural trend or social circle. A symbol is a bound to cultural memory, and an entire series of symbolic images runs vertically through the whole course of the human history, or large areas of it” [[9], p86].

Lotman noticed that some images are reproduced on the background of others. Describing images of Russian literature, the scholar marks them as complex symbols linked to European tradition, thus showing that typical images existing in semiosphere, though belonging to different cultures, enjoy similar features. We use this idea as the theoretical premise of our work.

Feminine images of the 20th century American literary discourse we consider from the perspective of Yu. M. Lotman’s typology.

2. A Cultural Type as a Symbol in a Cultural Context

A prominent scholar, the founder of semiotics of culture, Yuri M. Lotman, regards symbols as the most stable elements of cultural continuum. Symbols correlate with a cultural context, which influences and modifies them.

According to Lotman, a symbol is a condenser of all principles of signs, as it functions like a mediator between different spheres of semiosis, as well as semiotic and beyond-semiotic reality. Equally, it is a mediator between synchrony of a text and memory of a culture [[10], p 199].

Describing symbol as a holistic and self-contained meaning, Lotman shows that symbol has clearly determined boundaries on the background of a semantic context of a text.

The cultural context is created in no small measure by texts of various genres, thus “…any particular text can fulfill the role of a descriptive mechanism in regard to the cultural context” [[8], p56]. A text exists in different cultural or historic contexts. It functions in semiosphere “… as an informant that has moved to a new communicative situation and bring out hitherto latent aspects of their own coding system. This “self-recoding” in accordance with a situation reveals an analogy between the symbolic behavior of a person and a text” [[8], p56].

Yu. M. Lotman presumes expressive and meaningful adequacy of a symbol with a text, since “…a text presents itself not as a realization of a message in some one language, but as a complex system storing diverse codes capable of transforming messages received and generating new ones, a generator of information with the traits of an intelligent person” [[8], p57].

Yu. M. Lotman stresses a composite nature of a symbol. Unlike a conventional sign, a symbol is characterized by the presence of iconic element [[10], p199]. A cultural type is a historically conditioned symbol comprising index, icon and symbolic elements.

Index elements of the female types denote peculiarities of appearance, i.e. specific visual details of a female image (hairdo, fashion style). The lexemes, representing the types in communication, function as symbols that code and preserve notional and evaluative information about cultural types.

The icon is a prototypic image, characterized by a set of model qualities attributed by the society to a cultural type. A prototypic image represents a cultural type in its generalized form. In literary discourse, illusion of similitude between a cultural type and a literary image is produced. However, the author’s vision of a personage does not coincide completely with a cultural type; it is rather a projection of typical features on the image drawn by the writer. The aim of this work is to outline prototypic features of female cultural types of the 1900-1930s period in America.

3. Female Cultural Types in American Literature of the 1900-1930s

Female impact on the historic period of a national culture, as marked by Yu. M. Lotman, is rarely seen as a significant problem worthy of research. In our opinion, the influence of American women on national, as well as world culture, is great and deserves to be studied. In this work, we tried to reveal prototypic features of feminine types, which symbolize different periods in the culture of the 20th century USA.

Considered by Yu. M. Lotman feminine images correlate with the historic period of the country. With susceptibility of the slightest changes in the society, a woman is the first to accept a novelty, thus being the variability index of the society changes. At the same time a woman, in her conventional roles of a mother and a wife, is a keeper of traditional values [[11], p 65-74].

Worked out by Yu. M. Lotman for a certain period of Russian culture feminine types’ classification is appropriate to apply, with certain alterations, for the analysis of the 20th century American cultural types. Lotman singled out three types of feminine stereotypic images: an angel, a demon and a heroine [[11], p 46], that we use in the analysis of American cultural types, since the types described by Lotman are universal. Their motives, values, and personal traits correspond feminine archetypes: a virtuous and innocent angel, a courageous and confident heroine, and a seductive and passionate demon.

3.1. Angel

The Bible describes an angel as a powerful spiritual being whom God created to perform specific jobs both in heaven and on earth. By such a name in everyday life, we call a person of exemplary conduct and virtue.

An angel is an affectionate, caring wife, an ideal woman that preserves and transmits such traditional moral values as devotion, loyalty, solicitude and resignation. These qualities are praised by any society, in any culture. Feminine virtues as seen in traditional masculine view are highly praised by American patriarchal society at the beginning of the 20th century. This cultural type correlates with “Gibson girl”, the visual image of an ideal, created by Charles Dana Gibson as the illustration of generalized merits attributed by the society to a patriarchal woman. She embodies the ideal of an exquisite beauty, remaining a perfect mother and devoted wife.

The Gibson Girl corsets her hourglass figure and upsweeps her curly hair, and this becomes the fashion of the early 1900s. Her enigmatic smile ads loveliness to her enchanting person. She looks self-assured and patrician. Young women modeled clothes, gestures, hair and features of the Gibson Girl.

Kate Chopin, American author of short stories and novels, created the literary embodiment of the Gibson Girl. Her “Gibson Girls” are well-bred and educated. Mildred from Shameful Affair (1899) reads Ibsen. She is a confident, intelligent, religious beauty of twenty [[3], p 148-153]. Always well-mannered, she is never overtly flirtatious, yet makes her intentions known. She speaks to the object of her interest with “a condescending little smile, as she knew how”, “politely and with kindly dignity, which she supposed would define her position toward him” [[3], p 150-152]. Mildred is chaste and innocent, but readily goes alone to the river to see a young man she likes.

Another character, Clarisse of At the Cadian Ball (1892), is “worth going a good deal farther than that to see. Dainty as a lily; hardy as a sunflower; slim, tall, graceful, like one of the reeds that grew in the marsh. Cold and kind” [[3], p 164]. She behaves exactly as it is required from a well-bred girl of a good family. She shows disdain to a man she loves. When hugged by him, she expressed indifference, “…deftly adjusting the careful toilet that he had so brutally disarranged” [[3], p165]. However, when she realizes that she can lose her love she acts promptly: she rides at night to her beloved to confess that she loves him.

The Gibson Girl reflects the period of traditionalism in American social history that has been lost. This typical image, moulded according to a masculine ideal of the “perfect” woman, reveals in the literary forms strength and vigour of American woman that later has transformed into another typical image – a heroic woman, fighting for equality with a man in the society.

3.2. Heroine

If an angel is usually applied to describe an ideal woman, a hero is typically a man, who is known for his courage, outstanding achievements, or extremely good qualities. In ancient myths, it is a person of semi-divine origin, who has superhuman power and qualities to overcome the evil. A hero is a person, who has done something new and good. Сorrespondingly, a heroine is a woman admired for her courage, outstanding achievements, or noble qualities.

Keenly apprehending the problems and needs of society, a heroine is ready to fulfill the acts and deeds important to achieve the goals she set herself up changing the life for the better. Such were the women-pioneers who not only supported, but also lead the first settles on American land. Such type is a feminist whose efforts to fight for equality resulted in women's suffrage and ability to take high positions in the social hierarchy.

At the turn of the 20th century, feminists proved not only their right to vote, but also their sexuality, wages-earning ability, creativity in all spheres of art and literature. Switching roles from the sheer housekeeper, wife and mother, feminists showed to the world that a woman is worthy not less than a man to express her individuality in different ways and realize her ambitions.

The feminist writers’ goal was to make people accept women seriously and respectively in such a way breaking the image of a typical meek and gentle patriarchal woman of a traditionally limited social role.

A stiff stereotype of a feminist represents the image of an unmarried woman that neglects her natural inclination to nurse children as well as to attract men by her well-attended beauty, because her only passion is political fight for women’ rights. Anyhow, radical feminism existed in 1920s as well as today, but a feminist type is many-sided, balancing between family and career, personal achievements and upbringing children. Though sensitive to responsibility, “well-bred little ladies…broke loose” [[7], p41]. They stated a woman’s lodging for a financial independence that can secure her discretion [[7], p42].

As written by a feminist and politician, Cornelia Bryce Pinchot, in the mid-1920s: “…feminism has broadened and become more human, more understanding” [[12], p126], than it was initially. Feminists showed that for the realization of personal goals it is not necessary to live without family. More importance was laid on economic independence for women, and “the need of constructive action to make that possible for the average wife and mother” [[12], p126].

Feminists aimed at breaking through conventions imposed on them by their parents. Genevieve Taggard, the poet, in her autobiographical essay writes: “Am I the Christian gentlewoman my mother slaved to make me? No indeed. I am a poet, a wine-bibber, a radical; a non-churchgoer who will no longer sing in choir or lead a prayer-meeting with a testimonial” [[14], p66]. The previous generation of women tried to hide their disappointment and resentment of their married life, but feminists no longer want to live family life only for the sake of financial security: “It is better to work hard than to be married hard” [[14], p67]. For them “marriage is the only profound human experience” [[14], p66], that can be used in in future life.

Not a militant feminist herself, Willa Cather (a journalist, writer and poet) created the gallery of feminist images in her novel My Antonia (1918). The book reflects many different forms of feminism.

The main character, Antonia Shimerda, is not afraid to do a man’s work: “Oh, better I like to work out of doors than in a house! ... I not care that your grandmother say it makes me like a man. I like to be like a man” [[2], p801]. Due to her strong will power and independence, Antonia has achieved all that she had ever wanted. “She was a rich mine of life, like the founders of early races” [[2], p926].

There are other female characters in the book, representing different feminist ideals. Frances Harling succeed in in the field of business [[2], p894]. Modern, sophisticated and extremely independent Lena Lingard becomes a very successful dressmaker: “She had come to Lincoln, a country girl, with no introductions except to some cousins of Mrs. Thomas who lived there, and she was already making clothes for the women of “the young married set”. She evidently had a great natural aptitude for her work” [[2], p885]. Tiny Soderball leads an exciting life. She travels to Alaska in search of gold. Tiny finds adventure in her travels and success in the business world. Genevieve Whitney is described as “restless” and “headstrong” [[2], p711]. She embodies a sophisticated, contemporary woman that have “her own fortune and…her own life” [[2], p712].

All feminine images of the book depicted by Willa Cather are independent, strong-willed, having their own opinion about life and their role in it. Whether they decide to marry and have children, travel or succeed in the business world, they decide on their own without having their lives planned for them.

3.3. Demon

Satan’s evil angels are known from the Bible as demons that shared Satan’s fall from heaven and became evil. Supposedly, they could provoke physical illnesses and mental disorders. A cruel, evil, and unmanageable person is called a demon. Disrupting the order set by men, a demonic woman is a powerful source of worry and conflict.

The only wish of a demonic woman (femme fatale) is to enjoy life. It is a kind of “…a "vamp" – a picker up and thrower away of men, an unscrupulous and fundamentally unmoved toyer with affections” [[5], p512]. She breaks stereotypes and traditional setup of androcentric society. This type corresponds to the type of American flapper whose daring life style, well-trimmed beauty and hedonistic philosophy shocked patriarchal America even more than feminist struggle for sex equality.

A cultural phenomenon of a flapper arose as the revolt against austerity of the World War I, in the period of social optimism and well-being of the nation. Flappers have changed standards of feminine beauty and behavior. Being criticized by traditionalists as well as by feminists, flappers strive for managing their own life and enjoying it as much as possible: “Duties could wait. Pleasure was something you had to grab before it got away from you. The philosophy of a flapper” [[15], p321]. This philosophy is based on the hedonistic principles: “…her philosophy is carpe diem for herself and laissez faire for others” [[5], p147]. Regarding life too short (“It’s eating, drinking, working, loving, suffering and dying” [[4], p121], flappers wish to enjoy life to the full: “There was nothing, she had said, that she wanted, except to be gay and happy, and to have money and love” [[5], p658]. As it is little time for enjoying life, they do not want to burden themselves with “time-worn ideals” [[6], p74], duties and responsibilities: “I like sunshine and pretty things and cheerfulness and I dread responsibility” [[5], p157]. Such were flapper images created by the authors of 1920s: Patricia Fentriss by Fabian Warner, Ann Vaughn by Katherine Brush, Dorothy Haley by Vina Delmar, Alabama Beggs by Zelda Sayre Fitzgerald. The most attractive and unsurpassed images (Rosalind Connage from This side of Paradise (1920), Gloria Gilbert from The Beautiful and Damned (1922) and other flapper images are created by Francis Scott Fitzgerald, who is considered the inspirer and a supreme exponent of flapper ideology.

Preferring active life style (dancing and sports), flappers no longer want to constrain movements by inconvenient corsets. They wear loose-fitting short dresses that do not hide their slender figure: “She wore a sweater of some exotic, metallic blue, a short barred skirt and woolen stockings, displaying the firm rounded legs” [[15], p131]. The standard of feminine beauty has changed: from this time on women care to look slim and so attractive. Ideal of beauty is “young figure preserving still much of adorable awkwardness of undeveloped youth” [[15], p131], while languor beauty of the Gibson girl is regarded “depressing” [[5], p574].

Flappers try to look attractive, using make up (“…she had done her careful best for her elfish little face…” [[15], p58]. They apply mascara and eye shadows, paint their lips red, and this is considered reckless by the alder set.

Flappers feel self-confident (“I’m too bright for most men, and yet I have to descend to their level and let them patronize my intellect in order to get their attention” [[15], p207] and convinced in their superiority over men: “…any girl can beat a man nowadays” [[15], 157]. These women seek superiority in androcentric society by claiming sex appeal. The life goal of flappers is freedom of choice and self-expression.

4. Conclusion

Powerful characters created by American writers in narrative fiction and autobiographical essays at the beginning of the 20th century reflect existing in the society and fixed by culture female cultural types. Cultural types correlate with historic periods, alteration of which reflects changes in the life style and perception of women in the society.

In Lotman’s classification of feminine typical images, angelic Gibson Girl symbolizes traditional perception of women and evaluation of their merits in patriarchal America. Advocating women right to participate actively in social life and thus changing social viewpoint on the role of women, feminists are appropriate for the type of heroines in Lotman’s classification of feminine images. Flappers, breaking conventions and rules that restrain manifestation of women freedom of self-expression, correspond to demonic type of feminine images.

Though representing different periods in the history of American culture, the cultural types coexist as different generations coexist in the society in the same period of time. All of them have had their impact on profiling a cultural type of a modern American woman nowadays.

References

[1]   | Bartmiński, Jerzy. Этноцентризм стереотипа: результаты исследования немецких (Бохум) и польских (Люблин) студентов в 1993–1994 гг. [Ethnocentrism of a Stereotype: Speech and Mental Stereotypes in Synchrony and Diachrony]. Мoscow, 1995, 7-9.
[2]   | Cather, Willa. My Antonia. Early Novels and Stories. New York: Literary Classics of the United States, 1987. First published 1918 by Houghton Mifflin, Boston. Page references are to the 1987 edition.
[3]   | Chopin, Kate. The Awakening and Other Stories. Ed. and with the introduction by Barbara H. Solomon. New York: Penguin Putnam, Inc., 1976. First published 1899 by Herbert S. Stone & Co., Chicago & NY. Page references are to the1976 edition.
[4]   | Delmar, Vina. Bad Girl. New York: Avon Book Company, 1946. First published 1928 by Harcourt Brace & Co., New York. Page references are to the1946 edition.
[5]   | Fitzgerald, F. Scott. This side of Paradise. The Beautiful and Damned. New York: The library of America, Literary Classics of the United States, Inc., R. R. Donnelley and Sons Company, 2000. First published 1920, 1922 by Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. Page references are to the 2000 edition.
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[11]   | Lotman, Ju. M. Беседы о русской культуре: быт и традиции русского дворянства (XVIII – начало XIX века) [The Conversation about Russian Culture: a Daily Life and Traditions of Russian Gentry (the 18th century – the beginning of the 19th century)] St. Petersburg: Iskusstvo-SPB, 1994, 65-72.
[12]   | Pinchot, Cornelia Bryce. In Search of Adventure. These Modern Women: Autobiographical Essays from the Twenties (Originally published in 1926-1927 in The Nation). Ed. Elaine Showalter. Feminist Press at the City University of New York, 1989, 121-126.
[13]   | Putnam, Hilary Whitehall. The Meaning of ‘Meaning’ In Language, Mind and Knowledge. Minnesota Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol.7 ed. Keith Gunderson. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1975, 131-193.
[14]   | Taggard, Genevieve. Poet Out of Pioneer. In These Modern Women: Autobiographical Essays from the Twenties (Originally published in 1926-1927 in The Nation). Ed. Elaine Showalter. Feminist Press at the City University of New York, 1989, 63-68.
[15]   | Warner, Fabian. Flaming Youth. New York: The Macaulay Company, 1926. First published 1923 by Bony & Liveright, Inc. Page references are to the 1926 edition.