Dear Label_Name,

Greetings! I hope you are well.

I am writing on behalf of an international publishing house, Science and Education Publishing, USA (http://www.sciepub.com).

Science and Education Publishing (SciEP) is a multidisciplinary open access publisher of Journals covering the fields of Science, Technology and Medicine. All SciEP publications are subject to high-quality peer review, editorial and production processes and are freely available online.

Welcome to the April, 2013 edition of SciEP newsletter, providing monthly summaries of articles on science & education related topics of interest to scientist and professionals. The mission of our journals is to provide an open access forum for publishing new findings on issues pertinent to scientific and academic field. We also invite you to submit original research papers, review articles, short reports, or case studies are considered for publication in our Multidisciplinary Journals.

American Journal of Public Health Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajphr-1-1-3

The Implementation of a Tele-Homecare System with Service Oriented Architecture and HL7 Message Transmission Standard
Ching-Sung Wang

American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajmbr-1-1-2

The Influence of Ethanol on Pyruvate Kinases Activity in Vivo, in Vitro, in Silico
Lelevich Sergey Vladimirovich, Khrustalev Vladislav Victorovich, Barkovsky Eugene Victorovich, Shedogubova Tatyana Aleksandrovna

American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
DOI: 10.12691/ajmsm-1-1-1

Clinical and Histological Features in Wegener Granulomatosis
Li Cavoli Gioacchino, Passantino Rita, Bono Luisa, Tortorici Calogera, Ferrantelli Angelo, Giammarresi Carlo, Rotolo Ugo

American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
DOI: 10.12691/ajidm-1-1-2

The Curse of Lymphatic Filariasis: Would the Continual Use of Diethylcarbamazine Eliminate this Scourge in Papua New Guinea?
Anne Lanham, Lillian Mwanri

We have released issues of some journals on February 2013.
American Journal of Public Health Research
American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
American Journal of Pharmacological Sciences
American Journal of Clinical Medicine Research
American Journal of Nursing Research
American Journal of Cancer Prevention
American Journal of Medicine Studies
American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
American Journal of Cardiovascular Disease Research
American Journal of Biomedical Research
American Journal of Mechanical Engineering
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Journal of Preventive Medicine
American Journal of Food and Nutrition
American Journal of Hypertension Research
American Journal of Sports Science and Medicine
Journal of Cancer Research and Treatment
American Journal of Zoological Research
Journal of Biomedical Engineering and Technology
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Biomedical Science and Engineering

We are pleased to announce that submissions are now being accepted for peer review for all the journals across all our subject areas in SciEP.

Please submit your manuscript via our online submission system:
http://www.sciepub.com/author/signin

To unsubscribe from our mailing list, please click on the following link: unsubscribe

I am looking forward to hearing from you.

Kind regards,

David Rain
Email:join@sciepub.com
Science and Education Publishing (http://www.sciepub.com)

Effects of Soaking, Cooking, and Steaming Treatments on the Faba Bean Seeds’ Total Bioactive Compounds Content and Antioxidant Activity

Almagor Meital, Demri Avi, Galili Liel, Bellalou Aharon, Amir-Segev Orit, Galili Shmuel*

Institute of Plant Sciences, Department of Field Crops and Vegetables, Agricultural Research Organization, The Volcani Center, P.O. Box 15159, HaMaccabim Road 68, Rishon LeZion 7528809, Israel

Abstract: Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) is a winter-sowing grain legume with high-protein content utilized for human consumption and animal feeding. Faba beans contain high levels of polyphenol compounds with various nutritional benefits. Legume seeds, such as faba beans, are subject to different processing procedures before consumption, which decreases the levels of their bioactive compounds (polyphenols and flavonoids), resulting in a reduction in antioxidant activity. This study aimed to examine the influence of soaking, cooking, and steaming treatments on the total polyphenols, total flavonoid, and antioxidant activity levels of Broad (large) and Field (small) faba beans. Initially, the influence of the different extraction solvents on total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and ferric reduction ability of plasma antioxidant activity (FRAP), variables were inspected, wherein the extraction efficiency. 70% acidic acetone treatment was found to be the best solvent for extraction. Then, we determined the soaking, cooking, and steaming effects on TPC, TFC, and FRAP levels compared to dry seeds as the control. It was found that the various processes resulted in a significant reduction in the level of these components in the processed seeds of both Broad and Field beans. Nevertheless, the soaking treatment resulted in the smallest reduction. In addition, steaming caused a more moderate decline among the cooking types. Therefore, to maintain a higher level of these three ingredients in the final product, it is better to steam the seeds than cook them.

Keywords: food processing, nutritional quality, Polyphenols, FRAP, Vicia faba

Received November 28, 2022; Revised January 07, 2023; Accepted January 16, 2023

Citation: Almagor Meital, Demri Avi, Galili Liel, Bellalou Aharon, Amir-Segev Orit, Galili Shmuel, Effects of Soaking, Cooking, and Steaming Treatments on the Faba Bean Seeds’ Total Bioactive Compounds Content and Antioxidant Activity. Journal of Food and Nutrition Research, 11 (1). 96-101. January 2023. doi:10.12691/jfnr-11-1-9

1. Introduction

Faba bean (Vicia faba L.), also called Broad Bean, Horse Bean, or Field Bean, are a winter-sowing grain legume with high-protein content utilized for human consumption and animal feed [1]. Faba bean is one of the 7th- the world's most important pulse crops, followed by bean, chickpea, cowpea, pea, pigeon pea, and lentil. Faba bean seeds are cultivated in more than 60 countries in East and North Africa, southern Europe, West, and South Asia, South and North America, and Australia. The leading producer countries are China (37%), Ethiopia (18%), and Australia (9%). It covers 3% (2.5 million hectares (ha)) of the world's pulse croplands and with a mean annual production of 4.8 million tons [2]. Faba bean seeds contain about 30% protein, 42% Starch, 10% fibers, 4% sugars, and 2% fat [3]. Faba bean cultivars can be divided into two main types: broad beans and field beans. Broad bean cultivars are large flattened seeds with a 100 seed weight between 100-200g, and field bean cultivars are small round seeds with a 100 seed weight between 40-80g [3].

Dry legumes, including Faba bean seeds, also contain high levels of polyphenol compounds that confer high levels of antioxidant activity (AA) [4,5,6,7]. These compounds correlate to several biological activities, including antiaging, anti-inflammation, apoptosis, antioxidation, anticancer, antiatherosclerosis, cardiovascular protection, and other chronic diseases [8,9,10]. Thus, faba bean seeds could be an excellent potential functional food source. Like other legume seeds, faba bean must be subject to different processing procedures before consumption, such as soaking and cooking. These processes improve seeds' flavor and palatability, increase their protein digestibility and eliminate raffinose carbohydrates responsible for the unpleasant feeling and flatulency [11,12]. Processing also reduces the bioactive compounds and AA levels [13,14,15]. Although studies of the effects of thermal processes on total phenolic content and AA of dry faba beans showed a reduction in their levels [8,15,16], the data on the amount of polyphenols in the surrounding water is limited and was done on frozen beans [17] or ground seeds [18]. This study aimed to examine the influence of soaking, regular, pressure, steaming, and pressure steaming cooking on the total polyphenols and flavonoid compounds and antioxidant activity levels of broad (large) and field (small) faba bean seeds.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Plant Material

This study used two Vicia faba seed types: one large, broad bean type with a light green color and one small field bean type with a brown-colored seed. Both bean types were purchased at a retail food store.

2.2. Extraction and Determination of Phenolic Compounds and Antioxidant Activity from Seeds

For total phenolic compounds (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) extraction, seeds of both faba bean types were ground into a fine powder of 60 mesh in a grinder (Retsch MM301). Total polyphenols were extracted from 0.1g powder with 1000l of the extraction solvents (Bio-Lab): 70% methanol, 50 and 80% acetone, 70% acid acetone, and 66% acid, as previously described [19]. All extractions were conducted in triplicate. Determination of TPC, TFC, and ferric reduction ability of plasma AA (FRAP AA) was as previously described [19].

2.3. Soaking, Cooking, and Steaming Treatments

For soaking, raw faba bean seeds (1200g) were immersed in 3-4L of tap water in a plastic container for 16hr at room temperature. For regular cooking, 200g of soaked seeds were added to 1L of fresh tap water and brought to a boil in a 2.5L pot. After boiling, the seeds were continued to be cooked at 100oC for 80min. For pressure cooking, 200g soaked seeds were added to 1L fresh tap water and autoclaved at 121oC 1.5 atmospheres for 45min. For TPC, TFC, and FRAP AA determination in soaking and cooking water, three samples of 1.5ml of soaking or boiling water were sampled. For steaming, 200g soaked seeds were steamed in a steaming cooker VC100 (Tefal) for 180min. For pressure steaming, 200g soaked seeds were put into a plastic bag and autoclaved at 121oC 1.5 atmospheres for 45min. After each treatment, seed (100g) and water samples were cooled to room temperature and freeze-dried for five days. After drying the seed, grind it into a fine powder as above.

2.4. Statistical Analysis

Data were subjected to Tukey's HSD test utilizing JMP version 5 software (SAS Institute, Inc. Cary, NC, USA). Correlation among variables was done using the Pearson correlation test. Significant levels were defined using P ≤ 0.05. All analyses were performed in triplicate.

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Influence of Extraction Solvents on TPC, TFC, and FRAP AA

Figure 1 shows the effect of extraction solvents on TPC, TFC, and FRAP AA levels extracted from both broad and field bean types. High variation was observed between the solvents in the TPC, TFC, and FRAP AA extraction yield. In both bean types, 70% acidic acetone was significantly the best solvent for the extraction of both TPC (Figure 1A) and TFC (except for 80% acetone) (Figure 1B). The difference in the extraction yield of TP and TFC results in higher levels of FRAP AA (Figure 1C). As in the current study, the extraction yield of TPC, TFC, and FRAP AA from other legume seeds was greatly affected by the extraction solvents. 50% acetone was the best extraction solvent for both TPC, TFC, and FRAP AA from chickpeas [19], peanuts [20], and yellow soybean [21]. 70% acidic acetone was the best extraction solvent for lentils, black soybean, red and black kidney beans [21]. In faba beans, different solvents have been used to extract TPC. Siah et al. (2019) [7] found that TPC and antioxidant activities with 70% acetone extract were 2 and 2-6 fold than those of 80% methanol extract. Amarowicz and Shahidi (2017) [4] used 80% acetone, Kwon et al. (2018) [6] used 100% methanol, and Mehanni et al. (2017) [22] used 60% acidic methanol. Our results showed that 70% acidic acetone is the most efficient solvent for faba beans, therefore, further analyses were made only on 70% acidic acetone extractions.

Figure 1. Total phenolic content (A), total flavonoid content (B), and FRAP antioxidant activity (C) of Field and Broad bean types extracted with different solvents. 70% acidic acetone (70% AA), 80% acetone (80%A), 50% acetone (50%A), 66% acidic methanol (66%AM) and 70% methanol (70%M). The bar represents means ± standard error from at least three replicates. Columns of each seed type marked by the same letter are not significantly different (P>0.05)

3.2. TPC, TFC, and FRAP AA in Dry Seeds

TPC, TFC, and FRAP AA in dry seeds of Field and Broad beans are shown in Figure 2A-C (columns DS). Field bean type contains 30% more TPC, 20% more TFC, and 50% more FRAP AA than the Broad bean type. This may be due to the difference in seed color as previously reported in other crops [4,5,6,7,23,24,25,26,27]. Field faba bean contained 11.5mg catechin equivalents/g (mce/g) TPC, 4.8mce/g TFC, and 4.3mmol Trolox equivalents/100g (mte/100g) FRAP AA. Broad faba bean contained 8.7mce/g TPC, 4.1mce/g TFC, and 2.9mte/100g FRAP AA Figure 2A-C (columns DS). The levels of TPC, TFC, and FRAP AA in dry seeds were lower than those found by some reports [4,23,24] and higher than those found by others [7,26,27,28]. This may be due to different extraction conditions, different cultivars, or different reference standards. Dry faba bean seeds contain high TPC, TFC, and FRAP AA levels, as found in other colored seed legumes [19,21,29,30], including faba bean [4,5,15,23,24,27,28]. The TPC and FRAP AA levels of dry seeds were similar to or even higher than those of most fruits, vegetables, beverages, chocolates, and nuts [31,32]. This supports that dry-colored pulses are a good source of polyphenols and antioxidant activity [19]. High significant correlations were found between TPC, TFC, and FRAP AA (data not shown) with R values of 0.92-0.95, indicating that most antioxidant activity of faba bean seeds is derived from polyphenol compounds. Similar results were obtained in other seed legumes [15,19,21].

3.3. Effects of Soaking, Cooking, and Steaming on TPC, TFC, and FRAP AA

Soaking in water or alkali salts is a standard cooking pretreatment of chickpea or legume seeds that decreases energy costs due to a reduction in cooking times [33]. Therefore, we also checked the soaking effect on faba beans. Soaking treatment's effect on the TPC, TFC, and FRAP AA levels in the field and Broad faba beans are presented in Figure 2A-C (columns S) and Table 1A. In both Field and Broad seeds, soaking reduced TPC, TFC, and FRAP AA levels by 13-18%, 19-36%, and 36-44%, respectively.

The effect of regular cooking (C), pressure cooking (PS), steaming (St), and pressure steaming (PSt) treatments on the level of TPC, TFC, and FRAP AA in the field and broad beans are shown in Figure 2A-C (columns C, PC, St, and PSt). Both bean types' cooking and steaming treatments reduced TPC, TFC, and FRAP AA levels. TPC decreased by about 67% during St and PSt and by about 77% during C and PS treatments (Figure 2A (columns C, PC, St, and PSt)). TFC was reduced by about 56% during St and PSt and by about 73% during C and PS treatments (Figure 2B (columns C, PC, St, and PSt)). FRAP AA was reduced by about 65% during St and PSt and by about 82% during C and PS treatments (Figure 2C (columns C, PC, St, and PSt)). A similar decrease in TPC, TFC, and AA after soaking were also reported in other legumes [13,34,35], including faba beans [22,28,36]. In many cases, the decrease in TPC, TFC, and AA are caused by the leakage of polyphenols and flavonoids into the soaking or cooking water [10,13,34,35,37]. Thus, we examined the soaking and cooking water for the presence of polyphenols, flavonoids, and FRAP AA (Table 1A-C). As shown in the table, 39-77% of the disappeared TPC, 28-42% of the disappeared TFC, and 16-36% of the disappeared FRAP AA were found in the soaking water after soaking. Thus, 23-61% of the disappeared TPC, 58-72% of the disappeared TFC, and 64-84% of the disappeared FRAP AA were broken (Table 1A). After pressure cooking, 46-83% of the disappeared TPC, 74-91% of the disappeared TFC, and 91% of the disappeared FRAP AA were found in the cooking water. Thus, 17-54% of the disappeared TPC, 9-26% of the disappeared TFC, and 9% of the disappeared FRAP AA were broken (Table 1B). After regular cooking, 57-62% of the disappeared TPC, 71-92% of the disappeared TFC, and 67-106% of the disappeared FRAP AA after presser cooking were found in the cooking water. Thus, 38-43% of the disappeared TPC, 8-29% of the disappeared TFC, and (-6)-33% of the disappeared FRAP AA were broken (Table 1C). The breakage in TPC, TFC, and AA might be due to germination processes [22,38], the enzymatic activity of polyphenol oxidase [39,40], or decreases in extractability [41].

Figure 2. Total phenolic content (A), total flavonoid content (B), and FRAP antioxidant activity (C) in several treated conditions of two faba bean types. DS = dry seed, S = soaking, St = steaming, Pst = pressure steaming, PC = pressure cooking and C = cooking. All samples were extracted with 70% acidic acetone. The bar represents the means ± standard error from at least three replicates. Columns marked by the same letter are not significantly different (P>0.05)

Table 1. Total phenolic content (TPC), total flavonoid content (TFC), and FRAP antioxidant activity (AA) in the seeds and water of soaked and cooked faba bean treatments

4. Conclusion

Dry faba beans of both sizes (types) contain high levels of polyphenols, flavonoids, and antioxidant activity. Therefore, the faba bean seeds can be a good source of these components, which have been linked to the prevention of various chronic diseases such as cancer and heart disease. Despite the high level of these three compounds in dry seeds, various processes such as soaking, cooking, cooking with pressure, and evaporation, which are necessary for preparing these seeds for eating, caused a significant decrease in the level of these three components in the processed seeds. We also found that the soaking treatment resulted in the smallest reduction of these compounds than any other processing treatments. In addition, among all types of cooking, evaporation caused a more moderate decline than cooking and cooking pressure. Therefore, to maintain a higher level of these three ingredients in the final product, it is better to vaporize the seeds than cook them.

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

References

[1]   | Sudheesh, S, Kimber, R.B.E., Braich, S., Forster, J.W., Paull, J.G. Kaur, S. “Construction of an integrated genetic linkage map and detection of quantitative trait loci for ascochyta blight resistance in faba bean (Vicia faba L.)”. Euphytica, 2019, 215: 42.
[2]   | Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), http://faostat.fao.org.
[3]   | Crépon, K., Marget, P., Peyronnet, C., Carrouee, B. Arese, P. Duc, G. “Nutritional value of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) seeds for feed and food”. Field Crops Res, 2010, 115: 329-339.
[4]   | Amarowicz, R. Shahidi, F. “Antioxidant activity of broad bean seed extract and its phenolic composition”. J. of Functional Foods, 2017, 38: 656-662.
[5]   | Amarowicz, R. Shahidi F. “Antioxidant activity of faba bean extract and fractions thereof”. J. of Food Bioactives, 2017, 2: 112-118.
[6]   | Kwon, S.J., Kim, D.G., Kim, J.M., Kang, K.Y., Lee, M.K., Hong, M.J., Kim, J.B., Eom, S.H., Kang, S.Y., Ha, B.K. Jaihyunk, R. “Phytochemical compounds and antioxidant activity in the grain of selected faba bean (Vicia faba) genotypes”. Plant Breeding and Biotechnology, 2018, 6: 65-73.
[7]   | Siah, S.D., Agboola, S., Wood, J.A., Konczak, I. Blanchard, C.L.A. “comparison study of phenolic contents and in vitro antioxidant activities of Australian frown faba beans (Vicia faba L.) varying in seed coat colours as affected by extraction solvents”. Am. J. of Anal. Chem, 2019, 10: 227.
[8]   | Turco. I., Ferretti. G., Bacchetti. T. “Review of the health benefits of Faba bean (Vicia faba L.) polyphenols”. J. of Food and Nutrition Res, 2016, 55: 283-293.
[9]   | Rasouli, H., Farzaei, M.H. Khodarahmi, R. “Polyphenols and their benefits: A review”. Int. J. of Food Properties, 2017, 20: 1700-1741.
[10]   | Perez-Hernandez, L.M., Hernández-Álvarez, A.J., Morgan, M., Boesch, C. Orfila, C. Polyphenol bioaccessibility and anti-inflammatory activity of Mexican common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) with diverse seed colour. CyTA-J. of Food, 2021, 19: 682-690.
[11]   | Karr-Lilienthal, L.K., Kadzere, C.T., Grieshop, C.M., Fahey, Jr G.C. “Chemical and nutritional properties of soybean carbohydrates as related to nonruminants: A review”. Livestock Production Sci, 2005, 97: 1-12.

[12]  
Wainaina, I., Wafula, E., Sila, D., Kyomugasho, C., Grauwet, T., Van Loey, A., Hendrickx, M. “Thermal treatment of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.): Factors determining cooking time and its consequences for sensory and nutritional quality”. Comprehensive Rev. in Food Sci. and Food Safety, 2021, 20: 3690-3718.

[13]   | Segev, A., Badani, H., Galili, L., Hovav, R., Kapulnik, Y., Shomer, I. Galili, S. “Total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) as affected by soaking and cooking conditions”. Food and Nutrition Sci, 2011, 2: 724-730.
[14]   | Brand, Y., Galili, L., Badani, H., Hovav, R., Galili, S. “Total phenolic content and antioxidant activity of red and yellow quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) seeds as affected by baking and cooking conditions”. Food and Nutrition Sci, 2012, 3: 1150-1155.
[15]   | Stone, A.K., Waelchli, K.N., Çabuk, B., McIntosh, T.C., Wanasundara, J., Arntfield, S.D., Nickerson, M.T. “The levels of bioactive compounds found in raw and cooked Canadian pulses”. Food Sci. and Technol. Internationa,l 2021, 27: 528-538.
[16]   | Duan, S.C., Kwon, S.J,. Eom, SH. “Effect of thermal processing on color, phenolic compounds, and antioxidant activity of faba bean (Vicia faba L.) leaves and seeds”. Antioxidants, 2021, 10: 1207.
[17]   | Wolosiak, R., Worobiej, E., Piecyk, M., Druzynska, B., Nowak, D., Lewicki, P.P. “Activities of amine and phenolic antioxidants and their changes in broad beans (Vicia faba) after freezing and steam cooking”. International Journal of Food Sci. and Technol, 2010, 45: 29-37.
[18]   | Berghofer, E., Grzeskowiak, B., Mundigler, N., Sentall, W.B., Walcak, J. “Antioxidative properties of faba bean, soybean and oat tempeh”. Int. J. of Food Sci. and Nutrition, 1998, 49, 45-54.
[19]   | Segev, A., Badani, H., Kapulnik, Y., Shomer, I., Oren‐Shamir, M., Galili, S. “Determination of polyphenols, flavonoids, and antioxidant capacity in colored chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.)”. J. of Food Sci, 2010, 75: S115-S119.
[20]   | Shem‐Tov, Y., Badani, H., Segev, A., Hedvat, I., Galili, S., Hovav, R. “Determination of total polyphenol, flavonoid and anthocyanin contents and antioxidant capacities of skins from peanut (Arachis hypogaea) lines with different skin colors”. J. of Food Biochem, 2012, 36: 301-308.
[21]   | Xu, B.J., Chang, S.K.C. “A comparative study on phenolic profiles and antioxidant activities of legumes as affected by extraction solvents”. J. of Food Sci, 2007, 72: S159-S166.
[22]   | Mehanni, A.H.E., Sorour, M.A., Abd, El-Galel H., Ahmed, W.K. “Polyphenols, tannins and phytate contents in some Egyptian legumes as affected by soaking and germination processes. BAOJ Food Sci. and Technol, 2017, 1: 1-7.
[23]   | Chaieb, N., González, J.L., López-Mesas, M., Bouslama, M., Valiente, M. “Polyphenols content and antioxidant capacity of thirteen faba bean (Vicia faba L.) genotypes cultivated in Tunisia”. Food Res. Int, 2011, 44: 970-977
[24]   | Oomah, B.D., Luc, G., Leprelle, C., Drover, J.C.G, Harrison, J.E., Olson M. “Phenolics, phytic acid, and phytase in Canadian-grown low-tannin faba bean (Vicia faba L.) genotypes”. J. of Agri. and Food Chemi, 2011, 59:, 3763-3771.
[25]   | Siah, S., Wood, J.A., Agboola, S., Konczak, I., Blanchard C.L. “Effects of soaking, boiling and autoclaving on the phenolic contents and antioxidant activities of faba beans (Vicia faba L.) differing in seed coat colours”. Food Chem, 2014, 142: 461-468.
[26]   | Al-Numair, K.S., Ahmed, S.E.B., Al-Assaf, A.H., Alamri, M.S. Hydrochloric acid extractable minerals and phytate and polyphenols contents of sprouted faba and white bean cultivars. Food Chem, 2009, 113: 997-1002.
[27]   | Baginsky, C, Peña-Neira, Á, Cáceres, A, Hernández, T, Estrella, I, Morales H., “Pertuzé R. Phenolic compound composition in immature seeds of fava bean (Vicia faba L.) varieties cultivated in Chile”. J. of Food Composition and Anal, 2013, 31: 1-6.
[28]   | Saini, P., Singh, P., Dubey, S., Srivastava, A. “Effect of different processing methods on polyphenols content and antioxidant activity of broad bean (Vicia faba L.)”. Int. Journal of Current Res. and Rev, 2016, 8: 6-11.
[29]   | Akond, A., Khandaker, L., Berthold, J., Gates, L., Peters, K., Delong, H., “Hossain K. Anthocyanin, total polyphenols and antioxidant activity of common bean”. Am. J. of Food Technol, 2011, 6: 385-394.
[30]   | Singh, B., Singh, J.P., Kaur, A., Singh, N. “Phenolic composition and antioxidant potential of grain legume seeds: A review”. Food Res. Int, 2017, 101: 1-16.
[31]   | Zujko, M.E., Witkowska, A.M. “Antioxidant potential and polyphenol content of selected food”. Int. J. of Food Properties, 2011, 14: 300-308.
[32]   | Zujko, M.E., Witkowska, A.M. “Antioxidant potential and polyphenol content of beverages, chocolates, nuts, and seeds”. Int. J. of Food Properties, 2014, 17: 86-92.
[33]   | Chau, C.F, Cheung, P.C.K., Wong, Y.S. “Effects of cooking on content of amino acids and antinutrients in three Chinese indigenous legume seeds”. J.of the Sci. of Food and Agri, 1997, 75: 447-452.
[34]   | Xu, B., Chang, S.K.C. “Effect of soaking, boiling and steaming on total phenolic content antioxidant activities of cool season food legumes”. Food Chem, 2008, 110: 1-13.
[35]   | Han, H., Baik, B.K. “Antioxidant activity and phenolic content of lentils (Lens culinaris), chickpeas (Cicer arietinum L.), peas (Pisum sativum L.) and soybeans (Glycine max), and their quantitative changes during processing”. Int. J. of Food Sci. and Technol, 2008, 43: 1971-1978.
[36]   | Sharma, A., Sehgal, S. “Effect of domestic processing, cooking and germination on the trypsin inhibitor activity and tannin content of faba bean (Vicia faba)”. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 1992, 42: 127-133.
[37]   | Rocha-Guzmán, N.E., González-Laredo, R.F, Ibarra-Pérez, F.J., Nava-Berumen C.A. Gallegos-Infante JA. “.Effect of pressure cooking on the antioxidant activity of extracts from three common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) cultivars”. Food Chem, 2007, 100: 31-35.
[38]   | López-Martínez, L.X., Leyva-López, N., Gutiérrez-Grijalva, E.P., Heredia, J.B. Effect of cooking and germination on bioactive compounds in pulses and their health benefits. J. of Functional Foods, 2017, 38: 624-634.
[39]   | Jood, S., Bishnoi, S., Sehgal, S. “Effect of processing on nutritional and antinutritional factors of moongbean cultivars”. J. of Food Biochem, 1998, 22: 245-257.
[40]   | Saxena, A.K, Chadha, M. Sharma S. “Nutrients and antinutrients in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) cultivars after soaking and pressure cooking”. J. of Food Sci. and Technol, 2003, 40: 493-497.
[41]   | Saharan, K., Khetarpaul, N., Bishnoi, S. “Antinutrients and protein digestibility of fababean and ricebean as affected by soaking, dehulling and germination”. J. of Food Sci. and Technol, 2002, 39: 418-422.