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Welcome to the April, 2013 edition of SciEP newsletter, providing monthly summaries of articles on science & education related topics of interest to scientist and professionals. The mission of our journals is to provide an open access forum for publishing new findings on issues pertinent to scientific and academic field. We also invite you to submit original research papers, review articles, short reports, or case studies are considered for publication in our Multidisciplinary Journals.

American Journal of Public Health Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajphr-1-1-3

The Implementation of a Tele-Homecare System with Service Oriented Architecture and HL7 Message Transmission Standard
Ching-Sung Wang

American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajmbr-1-1-2

The Influence of Ethanol on Pyruvate Kinases Activity in Vivo, in Vitro, in Silico
Lelevich Sergey Vladimirovich, Khrustalev Vladislav Victorovich, Barkovsky Eugene Victorovich, Shedogubova Tatyana Aleksandrovna

American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
DOI: 10.12691/ajmsm-1-1-1

Clinical and Histological Features in Wegener Granulomatosis
Li Cavoli Gioacchino, Passantino Rita, Bono Luisa, Tortorici Calogera, Ferrantelli Angelo, Giammarresi Carlo, Rotolo Ugo

American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
DOI: 10.12691/ajidm-1-1-2

The Curse of Lymphatic Filariasis: Would the Continual Use of Diethylcarbamazine Eliminate this Scourge in Papua New Guinea?
Anne Lanham, Lillian Mwanri

We have released issues of some journals on February 2013.
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Dear Label_Name,

Greetings! I hope you are well.

I am writing on behalf of an international publishing house, Science and Education Publishing, USA (http://www.sciepub.com).

Science and Education Publishing (SciEP) is a multidisciplinary open access publisher of Journals covering the fields of Science, Technology and Medicine. All SciEP publications are subject to high-quality peer review, editorial and production processes and are freely available online.

Welcome to the April, 2013 edition of SciEP newsletter, providing monthly summaries of articles on science & education related topics of interest to scientist and professionals. The mission of our journals is to provide an open access forum for publishing new findings on issues pertinent to scientific and academic field. We also invite you to submit original research papers, review articles, short reports, or case studies are considered for publication in our Multidisciplinary Journals.

American Journal of Public Health Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajphr-1-1-3

The Implementation of a Tele-Homecare System with Service Oriented Architecture and HL7 Message Transmission Standard
Ching-Sung Wang

American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajmbr-1-1-2

The Influence of Ethanol on Pyruvate Kinases Activity in Vivo, in Vitro, in Silico
Lelevich Sergey Vladimirovich, Khrustalev Vladislav Victorovich, Barkovsky Eugene Victorovich, Shedogubova Tatyana Aleksandrovna

American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
DOI: 10.12691/ajmsm-1-1-1

Clinical and Histological Features in Wegener Granulomatosis
Li Cavoli Gioacchino, Passantino Rita, Bono Luisa, Tortorici Calogera, Ferrantelli Angelo, Giammarresi Carlo, Rotolo Ugo

American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
DOI: 10.12691/ajidm-1-1-2

The Curse of Lymphatic Filariasis: Would the Continual Use of Diethylcarbamazine Eliminate this Scourge in Papua New Guinea?
Anne Lanham, Lillian Mwanri

We have released issues of some journals on February 2013.
American Journal of Public Health Research
American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
American Journal of Pharmacological Sciences
American Journal of Clinical Medicine Research
American Journal of Nursing Research
American Journal of Cancer Prevention
American Journal of Medicine Studies
American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
American Journal of Cardiovascular Disease Research
American Journal of Biomedical Research
American Journal of Mechanical Engineering
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Journal of Preventive Medicine
American Journal of Food and Nutrition
American Journal of Hypertension Research
American Journal of Sports Science and Medicine
Journal of Cancer Research and Treatment
American Journal of Zoological Research
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Dear Label_Name,

Greetings! I hope you are well.

I am writing on behalf of an international publishing house, Science and Education Publishing, USA (http://www.sciepub.com).

Science and Education Publishing (SciEP) is a multidisciplinary open access publisher of Journals covering the fields of Science, Technology and Medicine. All SciEP publications are subject to high-quality peer review, editorial and production processes and are freely available online.

Welcome to the April, 2013 edition of SciEP newsletter, providing monthly summaries of articles on science & education related topics of interest to scientist and professionals. The mission of our journals is to provide an open access forum for publishing new findings on issues pertinent to scientific and academic field. We also invite you to submit original research papers, review articles, short reports, or case studies are considered for publication in our Multidisciplinary Journals.

American Journal of Public Health Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajphr-1-1-3

The Implementation of a Tele-Homecare System with Service Oriented Architecture and HL7 Message Transmission Standard
Ching-Sung Wang

American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajmbr-1-1-2

The Influence of Ethanol on Pyruvate Kinases Activity in Vivo, in Vitro, in Silico
Lelevich Sergey Vladimirovich, Khrustalev Vladislav Victorovich, Barkovsky Eugene Victorovich, Shedogubova Tatyana Aleksandrovna

American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
DOI: 10.12691/ajmsm-1-1-1

Clinical and Histological Features in Wegener Granulomatosis
Li Cavoli Gioacchino, Passantino Rita, Bono Luisa, Tortorici Calogera, Ferrantelli Angelo, Giammarresi Carlo, Rotolo Ugo

American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
DOI: 10.12691/ajidm-1-1-2

The Curse of Lymphatic Filariasis: Would the Continual Use of Diethylcarbamazine Eliminate this Scourge in Papua New Guinea?
Anne Lanham, Lillian Mwanri

We have released issues of some journals on February 2013.
American Journal of Public Health Research
American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
American Journal of Pharmacological Sciences
American Journal of Clinical Medicine Research
American Journal of Nursing Research
American Journal of Cancer Prevention
American Journal of Medicine Studies
American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
American Journal of Cardiovascular Disease Research
American Journal of Biomedical Research
American Journal of Mechanical Engineering
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Journal of Preventive Medicine
American Journal of Food and Nutrition
American Journal of Hypertension Research
American Journal of Sports Science and Medicine
Journal of Cancer Research and Treatment
American Journal of Zoological Research
Journal of Biomedical Engineering and Technology
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Biomedical Science and Engineering

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Label_Title

Dear Label_Name,

Greetings! I hope you are well.

I am writing on behalf of an international publishing house, Science and Education Publishing, USA (http://www.sciepub.com).

Science and Education Publishing (SciEP) is a multidisciplinary open access publisher of Journals covering the fields of Science, Technology and Medicine. All SciEP publications are subject to high-quality peer review, editorial and production processes and are freely available online.

Welcome to the April, 2013 edition of SciEP newsletter, providing monthly summaries of articles on science & education related topics of interest to scientist and professionals. The mission of our journals is to provide an open access forum for publishing new findings on issues pertinent to scientific and academic field. We also invite you to submit original research papers, review articles, short reports, or case studies are considered for publication in our Multidisciplinary Journals.

American Journal of Public Health Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajphr-1-1-3

The Implementation of a Tele-Homecare System with Service Oriented Architecture and HL7 Message Transmission Standard
Ching-Sung Wang

American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajmbr-1-1-2

The Influence of Ethanol on Pyruvate Kinases Activity in Vivo, in Vitro, in Silico
Lelevich Sergey Vladimirovich, Khrustalev Vladislav Victorovich, Barkovsky Eugene Victorovich, Shedogubova Tatyana Aleksandrovna

American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
DOI: 10.12691/ajmsm-1-1-1

Clinical and Histological Features in Wegener Granulomatosis
Li Cavoli Gioacchino, Passantino Rita, Bono Luisa, Tortorici Calogera, Ferrantelli Angelo, Giammarresi Carlo, Rotolo Ugo

American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
DOI: 10.12691/ajidm-1-1-2

The Curse of Lymphatic Filariasis: Would the Continual Use of Diethylcarbamazine Eliminate this Scourge in Papua New Guinea?
Anne Lanham, Lillian Mwanri

We have released issues of some journals on February 2013.
American Journal of Public Health Research
American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
American Journal of Pharmacological Sciences
American Journal of Clinical Medicine Research
American Journal of Nursing Research
American Journal of Cancer Prevention
American Journal of Medicine Studies
American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
American Journal of Cardiovascular Disease Research
American Journal of Biomedical Research
American Journal of Mechanical Engineering
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Journal of Preventive Medicine
American Journal of Food and Nutrition
American Journal of Hypertension Research
American Journal of Sports Science and Medicine
Journal of Cancer Research and Treatment
American Journal of Zoological Research
Journal of Biomedical Engineering and Technology
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Biomedical Science and Engineering

We are pleased to announce that submissions are now being accepted for peer review for all the journals across all our subject areas in SciEP.

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Risk Assessment Related to Metallic Trace Elements Present in Toothpaste Sold in Supermarkets in Abidjan (Côte D’Ivoire)

SANGARE Naminata SOUMAHORO*, ZRAN Vanh Eric-Simon, GNONSORO Urbain Paul, KOFFI Koffi Didier

Laboratoire de Constitution et de Réaction de la Matière, Université Félix Houphouët Boigny, 22 BP 582 Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire

Abstract: Toothpaste, a widely used oral hygiene product, can constitute a pathway for exposure to metallic trace elements (ETM) due to their composition and manufacturing processes. Although these products are subject to regulations, the presence of toxic ETMs (Cd, Pb, Ni, Fe et Zn) remains a concern, particularly in developing countries where quality controls may be limited. This study aims to quantify the concentrations of Cd, Pb, Ni, Fe, and Zn in toothpastes sold in Abidjan, and assess the health risks associated with their use by ingestion and dermal route. Five brands of toothpastes were selected based on their popularity. Twenty-five samples were analyzed by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (MESA-50). Non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks were calculated according to USEPA protocols. Results showed that average Zn concentrations (0.004–0.937 mg/kg) is higher in 60% of samples. Cd had high levels in P3 (0.055 mg/kg). Dermatological non-carcinogenic risk calculations QD values < 1 for all different toothpastes, thus would not constitute a potential hazard to the consumer. However, hazard quotients (HQs) by ingestion were >1 for Cd (38.99), Ni (1.16), and Pb (5.90), indicating a potential toxic risk. Carcinogenic risks (CR) were particularly high for Cd (253.4. 10⁻⁶), exceeding the acceptable threshold (1 × 10⁻⁶). This study reveals significant contamination by certain TMEs, particularly Zn and Cd, in toothpastes marketed in Abidjan. Although cutaneous risks are negligible, chronic ingestion could lead to cumulative toxic effects. Strengthened quality controls and awareness campaigns are recommended.

Keywords: Trace metal elements, Toothpastes, Risk assessment, X-ray fluorescence, Population health

Received January 15, 2026; Revised February 17, 2026; Accepted February 24, 2026

Citation: SANGARE Naminata SOUMAHORO, ZRAN Vanh Eric-Simon, GNONSORO Urbain Paul, KOFFI Koffi Didier, Risk Assessment Related to Metallic Trace Elements Present in Toothpaste Sold in Supermarkets in Abidjan (Côte D’Ivoire). Journal of Environment Pollution and Human Health, 14 (1). 1-7. January 2026. doi:10.12691/jephh-14-1-1

1. Introduction

Toothpastes are essential cosmetic products regularly used for oral hygiene. However, their complex composition may include TMEs from raw materials including abrasives, fluorides, humectants and preservatives, manufacturing processes or packaging [1]. Studies have associated chronic exposure to these metals with neurotoxic, nephrotoxic and carcinogenic effects [2]. Among these TMEs, cadmium (Cd), lead (Pb), nickel (Ni), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) are of particular concern due to their toxicity even at low concentrations [3,4]. Cd and Pb are classified as carcinogenic by IARC (Group 1), while Ni is considered a potent allergen. Chronic exposure to these metals, particularly through accidental ingestion of toothpaste (common in children), can lead to adverse health effects: nephrotoxicity, neurotoxicity, and increased cardiovascular risks [5,6,7]. However, several studies have highlighted the presence of trace metal elements (TMEs) in certain cosmetic and personal care products, including toothpastes [1]. The determination of potentially toxic TMEs in hygiene and consumer products is crucial for the assessment of human and environmental exposure sources. The public is generally unaware of these types of daily exposure to oral care products and their health consequences. [8] included toothpaste use as one of the possible sources of lead exposure.

In Côte d'Ivoire, despite the existence of regulations on cosmetic products [9], the market is flooded with imported or counterfeit toothpastes, the quality of which is not always guaranteed. The following objectives are therefore to determine the concentrations of Cd, Pb, Ni, Fe, and Zn in the most popular toothpastes in Abidjan and to assess the health risks associated with their use using ingestion and dermal exposure models.

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Identification and Selection of Toothpastes

Five brands of toothpastes (P1, P2, P3, P4, and P5) were selected based on their availability in Abidjan's supermarkets. Twenty-five samples (5 per brand) were purchased from five different brands (COSMOS Yopougon, CAP NORD Riviera, BON PRIX Abobo, BON PRIX Adjamé, CAP SUD Marcory) to ensure representativeness.

2.2. Identification and Selection of TMEs

The TMEs Cd, Pb, Zn, Fe, and Ni were chosen because they are involved in the composition and manufacturing processes of toothpastes.

2.3. TME Analysis Methodology

The X-ray Fluorescence Analyzer (MESA-50) equipped with an SDD detector and a rhodium source was used for the analysis of TMEs in toothpastes. HORIBA software was used for the device configuration, calibration, and analysis. Calibration was performed using certified standards (NIST 1573a). All samples were air-dried at low temperature to constant mass, finely homogenized using an agate mortar, and pressed into pellets under constant pressure. This procedure ensured sample representativeness, reduced heterogeneity, and improved reproducibility of the measurements. Method accuracy was evaluated through spike-recovery experiments and, where available, certified reference materials representative of cosmetic or mineral matrices. Mean recovery rates ranged between 85% and 110%, which falls within the acceptable range for trace metal analysis in complex matrices. These results confirm the adequacy of the analytical procedure. We acknowledge that toothpaste is a complex and heterogeneous matrix that may induce matrix effects, particularly X-ray absorption and enhancement phenomena. To minimize these effects, samples were homogenized, pelletized, and analyzed under constant mass and geometry. Fundamental parameter and/or matrix-matched calibration approaches were applied 15 g of each sample was placed in the rack and placed on the detector. After 5 minutes, using Horiba software, the analysis report was generated on the screen of a computer connected to the analyzer. Interference correction between metals was immediately implemented to obtain the final result. Each sample was analyzed in duplicate. This approach was considered adequate because XRF is a non-destructive and highly reproducible technique, and preliminary tests showed relative standard deviations generally below 10%. While additional replicates could further improve robustness at concentrations close to the LOD, duplicate analyses were sufficient for the comparative and screening objectives of this study.

The limits of detection (LOD) for Zn, Fe, Ni, Cd and Pb were determined following standard analytical practice as three times the standard deviation of repeated blank measurements (3σ). Using an SDD-based XRF system, the typical LODs for the toothpaste matrix were approximately 0.5–5 mg/kg for Fe, Ni and Zn, and 0.1–1 mg/kg for Cd and Pb. No significant deviations from standard analytical protocols were observed. The main sources of uncertainty are related to concentrations close to the detection limits and residual matrix effects.

2.4. Calculation of Carcinogenic and Non-Carcinogenic Risks

2.4.1. Chronic Daily Intake (CDI)

The CDI therefore determines the quantity of chemical substance ingested (CDI_i), or absorbed through the skin (CDI_d) per kilogram of mass per person per day (mg.Kg⁻¹d⁻¹) according to the following Equations 1 and 2 [10]

[picture] | (1)

[picture] | (2)

Table 1 below gives the values of the different parameters for risk calculation.

Table 1. Parameters characterizing chronic daily intake (CDI) values [11,12]

2.4.2. Non-carcinogenic Risk

2.4.2.1. Hazard Quotient (HQ)

The potential non-carcinogenic risk of exposure to contaminants, called the Hazard Quotient (HQ) (Equation 3), is assessed by the ratio of contaminant exposure doses calculated according to the exposure routes (CDI) (ingestion, adsorption) to the reference dose (RfD) [13,14,15] (Table 2).

Table 2. Toxicity index of each metallic element

[picture] | (3)

CDI: chronic daily intake (mg.kg⁻¹d⁻¹).

RfD: reference dose (mg.kg⁻¹d⁻¹).

If HQ <1, it means that the occurrence of a toxic effect is very unlikely and

If HQ > 1, it means that the occurrence of a toxic effect cannot be excluded [16].

2.4.2.2. Hazard Index (HI)

To determine the total potential non-carcinogenic effects due to more than one chemical parameter, the hazard quotient values (HQs) for each chemical element (Equation 4) are summed and expressed as HI [13,14,15,16,17].

[picture] | (4)

If HI is less than 1, then there is no risk of chronic contamination.

If HI is greater than 1 as a result of the sum of the HQs, there is a possibility of a non-carcinogenic effect. It would be appropriate to consider the HQs of each metal separately [13,18].

2.4.3. Carcinogenic Risk

Carcinogenic risk (CR) is estimated by the probability of an individual developing cancer after a certain time in their life (35 years) as a result of exposure to the potential Carcinogenicity [13]. Linearly, Equation 5 is used for each exposure mode.

[picture] | (5)

CF: Carcinogenicity factor of a particular contaminant, which is defined as the risk generated by an average quantity of the chemical contaminant.

For carcinogenic risks (CR) in the range of 1.10⁻⁶ to 1.10⁻⁴ (10⁻⁶ < CR < 10⁻⁴), the risk is low and can be neglected and deemed acceptable.

For CR < 1.10⁻⁶, the carcinogenic risk can be considered negligible.

For CR > 10⁻⁴, there is a high risk of developing cancer [19,20,21].

2.5. Statistical Analysis

The data were processed using Excel 2013 and R 4.0.2. Means, standard deviations, and confidence intervals (95% CI) were calculated.

3. Results

3.1. TME Contents in Toothpastes

The average contents are summarized in Table 3 and Figure 1.

Table 3. TME Contents in Toothpastes from Different Municipalities

Zn and Fe are generally not regulated as contaminants in toothpastes because they may be intentional ingredients or harmless impurities at low doses, unlike Pb and Cd.

The results showed high Zn concentrations in P1 (0.197 mg/kg) and P3 (0.017 mg/kg). Cd levels is near the standard in P3 (0.055 mg/kg in one sample). Our results are consistent with those of [24] in Nigeria, where high levels of Pb, Cd and Ni were reported. The high zinc levels are thought to be due to the raw materials including the active ingredients used in the manufacture of toothpastes. This is the case of bactericidal agents with metal ion, including zinc salts (zinc citrate C₁₂H₁₀O₁₄Zn₃) which are used as anti-tartar agents. Zinc citrate is also associated with phenolic agents (the most used is triclosan) in the case of antibacterial agents [25,26]. Corrosion of metal equipment could explain the high concentrations of Fe, especially those made of stainless steel, thus leading to their release into the final product [27]. Corrosion of the TMEs (Pb, Cd, and Ni) used in these packaging can also lead to their migration into the final product [28]. The presence of these TMEs could also be due to counterfeiting and non-compliance with toothpaste manufacturing processes. These poor manufacturing and handling practices for packaging materials, and the use of non-compliant materials or inappropriate processes, could introduce metal contaminants into the packaging [29]. Studies conducted in some West African countries have revealed significant variations in contamination levels depending on product origin and local manufacturing practices [30]. Although some brands comply with WHO standards [22,23], the accumulation of TMEs, even at low levels, can pose long-term carcinogenic risks, especially when used regularly by vulnerable populations such as children.

Figure 1. Average concentrations of TMEs in toothpastes (our study)

3.2. Risk Calculation

3.2.1. Non-Carcinogenic Risk

3.2.1.1. Non-carcinogenic Risk Via the Dermal Route

Table 4 presents the daily intake values and hazard quotients associated with the presence of these TMEs via the dermal route in the various toothpastes. The CDI and HQ via the dermatological route were less than 1 for the TMEs in all toothpastes. This suggests that no potential health risks are associated with the use of these adsorption toothpastes. However, reports from three dermatitis clinics have shown that cheilitis, an inflammatory condition of the lips, is often caused by toothpastes [5,31].

Table 4. Non-carcinogenic dermatological risks associated with TMEs in toothpastes

3.2.1.2. Non-carcinogenic Risk by Ingestion

Table 5 shows the daily intake and hazard quotient values associated with the presence of these TMEs by ingestion in the various toothpastes, respectively. The daily intake values by ingestion for all the TMEs studied (Cd, Fe, Ni, Zn, and Pb) were below the standard. These results are similar to those obtained by [24] in Nigeria. The hazard quotient was less than 1 for the TMEs Fe and Zn, suggesting that no potential health risks are associated with their use. However, the hazard quotient (HQ) was greater than 1 for Cd (up to 38.99), Ni (1.16), and Pb (5.90). Long-term exposure to these TMEs would indicate adverse health effects on living beings and therefore a source of cancer in humans.

Table 5. Non-carcinogenic risks by ingestion related to TMEs in toothpastes

The toxic amount of the studied TMEs ingested from toothpaste appears to be low, however this amount of the potential toxic metal could be ingested from other sources such as water, beverages and foods prepared with water, etc. It should be emphasized that the total potential ingestion of toxic metal is the most important consideration. According to the work of [8] on the association between blood lead levels (BLL) and environmental exposure among Saudi students in selected districts of Al-Madinah, 95.8% of those with a BBL above 10 μg/dl used toothpaste. Since caries causes the diffusion of minerals across the enamel surface in the process known as demineralization, the high level of lead in this study is of paramount importance for public health. [32] found a positive correlation between age and lead level in human teeth. [33] found that lead levels in modern teeth in Japan were higher than those obtained from teeth from human remains. This indicates that lead pollution is more prevalent today than in the past. Therefore, determining the carcinogenic risk (CR) associated with the presence of ETMs (Cd, Ni, and Pb) through ingestion would be necessary.

3.2.2. Hazard Index (HI)

Table 6 shows the values of the ingestion and dermatological hazard indices for the different toothpastes, respectively.

Table 6. Hazard index of non-carcinogenic risks for ingestion in toothpastes

The ingestion hazard index for all toothpastes was greater than 1. However, these toothpastes present a non-carcinogenic risk in the event of prolonged exposure. However, the dermal hazard index is less than 1, indicating a non-carcinogenic risk.

3.3. Calculation of Carcinogenic Risk (CR)

The values for the carcinogenic risk (CR) calculations for the TMEs Cd, Ni, and Pb are shown in Table 7.

Table 7. Carcinogenic risks by ingestion related to TMEs (Cd, Ni, and Pb) in toothpastes

The calculations showed very high carcinogenic risks (CR) for cadmium (253.44. 10⁻⁶ (P3), exceeding the threshold acceptable (1 × 10⁻⁶) and considered negligible for nickel and lead. This suggests a carcinogenic risk linked to these ETMs, hence exposure of the population to cancer. Chronic ingestion of Cd and Pb could contribute to cardiovascular and cancer pathologies [19,34]. Exposure to lead is linked to an increase in blood pressure and hypertension [35]. Men with high bone lead (Pb) concentrations were more than five times more likely to die from cardiovascular disease than those with low bone lead (Pb) levels [36]. Exposure to nickel has been associated with genotoxic, immunotoxic, reproductive toxicant, neurotoxic and carcinogenic effects [37]. Improved regulations, toothpaste labeling, and an international standard are therefore necessary [37].

The comparison analysis of the result of this current study with those of the west Africa showed in Table 8.

Table 8. Regional comparison of critical concentrations of TMEs and associated health risks in toothpastes in West Africa

The analysis of this table highlights a systemic public health issue within the West African sub-region:

• Uniformity of Regional Risks: A striking similarity is observed between the results obtained in Abidjan and those reported in Nigeria [24] and Ghana [30]. All three countries identify Lead (Pb) and Cadmium (Cd) as major contaminants. This suggests that products circulating within the ECOWAS region share common raw material sources or manufacturing circuits—often informal or counterfeit—exhibiting the same quality control failures.

• Specificity of the Current Abidjan Study: This study distinguishes itself by identifying Zinc (Zn) as a critical metal and, most importantly, by quantifying an extremely high carcinogenic risk (CR) for Cadmium (253.4.10⁻⁶). While the studies in Ghana focused on overall chronic exposure, our data highlight an immediate danger of severe pathologies (cancer, nephrotoxicity) linked to accidental ingestion.

• Severity of Ingestion Risk: The comparison emphasizes that, unlike in developed countries where the risk is often deemed negligible, the West African context presents Hazard Indices (HI) consistently greater than 1. This confirms that toothpaste is not merely a hygiene product in Côte d'Ivoire but a significant source of heavy metal exposure that compounds existing environmental pollution (water, food).

As indicated in Table 8, our results corroborate observations made in Ghana and Nigeria, highlighting a regional vulnerability to metallic contamination in oral care products.

4. Conclusion

Our study allowed us to assess the toxicity risk associated with the use of toothpastes sold in the city of Abidjan. This study revealed worrying levels of TMEs, particularly Zn and Cd, with significant health risks through ingestion. These results suggest that the TMEs present could be one of the consequences of high blood pressure, which is the leading cause of death from cardiovascular disease and cancer, which are prevalent in Côte d'Ivoire. Regulatory measures, including the strengthening of quality controls by Health authorities and consumer awareness campaigns on the risks associated with counterfeit products are necessary.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to express their infinite gratitude to the Laboratoire de constitution et reaction de la matière of the UFR SSMT.

Statement of Competing Interest

The authors declare that they have no competing interest.

List of Abbreviation

Not applicable

References

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[3]   | Borysewicz-Lewicka, M., Opydo-Szymaczek, J., “Fluoride in Polish Drinking Water and the Possible Risk of Dental Fluorosis”, Polish Journal of Environmental Studies, 25(1), 9–15. 2016.
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