Dear Label_Name,

Greetings! I hope you are well.

I am writing on behalf of an international publishing house, Science and Education Publishing, USA (http://www.sciepub.com).

Science and Education Publishing (SciEP) is a multidisciplinary open access publisher of Journals covering the fields of Science, Technology and Medicine. All SciEP publications are subject to high-quality peer review, editorial and production processes and are freely available online.

Welcome to the April, 2013 edition of SciEP newsletter, providing monthly summaries of articles on science & education related topics of interest to scientist and professionals. The mission of our journals is to provide an open access forum for publishing new findings on issues pertinent to scientific and academic field. We also invite you to submit original research papers, review articles, short reports, or case studies are considered for publication in our Multidisciplinary Journals.

American Journal of Public Health Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajphr-1-1-3

The Implementation of a Tele-Homecare System with Service Oriented Architecture and HL7 Message Transmission Standard
Ching-Sung Wang

American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajmbr-1-1-2

The Influence of Ethanol on Pyruvate Kinases Activity in Vivo, in Vitro, in Silico
Lelevich Sergey Vladimirovich, Khrustalev Vladislav Victorovich, Barkovsky Eugene Victorovich, Shedogubova Tatyana Aleksandrovna

American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
DOI: 10.12691/ajmsm-1-1-1

Clinical and Histological Features in Wegener Granulomatosis
Li Cavoli Gioacchino, Passantino Rita, Bono Luisa, Tortorici Calogera, Ferrantelli Angelo, Giammarresi Carlo, Rotolo Ugo

American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
DOI: 10.12691/ajidm-1-1-2

The Curse of Lymphatic Filariasis: Would the Continual Use of Diethylcarbamazine Eliminate this Scourge in Papua New Guinea?
Anne Lanham, Lillian Mwanri

We have released issues of some journals on February 2013.
American Journal of Public Health Research
American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
American Journal of Pharmacological Sciences
American Journal of Clinical Medicine Research
American Journal of Nursing Research
American Journal of Cancer Prevention
American Journal of Medicine Studies
American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
American Journal of Cardiovascular Disease Research
American Journal of Biomedical Research
American Journal of Mechanical Engineering
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Journal of Preventive Medicine
American Journal of Food and Nutrition
American Journal of Hypertension Research
American Journal of Sports Science and Medicine
Journal of Cancer Research and Treatment
American Journal of Zoological Research
Journal of Biomedical Engineering and Technology
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Biomedical Science and Engineering

We are pleased to announce that submissions are now being accepted for peer review for all the journals across all our subject areas in SciEP.

Please submit your manuscript via our online submission system:
http://www.sciepub.com/author/signin

To unsubscribe from our mailing list, please click on the following link: unsubscribe

I am looking forward to hearing from you.

Kind regards,

David Rain
Email:join@sciepub.com
Science and Education Publishing (http://www.sciepub.com)

Label_Title

Dear Label_Name,

Greetings! I hope you are well.

I am writing on behalf of an international publishing house, Science and Education Publishing, USA (http://www.sciepub.com).

Science and Education Publishing (SciEP) is a multidisciplinary open access publisher of Journals covering the fields of Science, Technology and Medicine. All SciEP publications are subject to high-quality peer review, editorial and production processes and are freely available online.

Welcome to the April, 2013 edition of SciEP newsletter, providing monthly summaries of articles on science & education related topics of interest to scientist and professionals. The mission of our journals is to provide an open access forum for publishing new findings on issues pertinent to scientific and academic field. We also invite you to submit original research papers, review articles, short reports, or case studies are considered for publication in our Multidisciplinary Journals.

American Journal of Public Health Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajphr-1-1-3

The Implementation of a Tele-Homecare System with Service Oriented Architecture and HL7 Message Transmission Standard
Ching-Sung Wang

American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajmbr-1-1-2

The Influence of Ethanol on Pyruvate Kinases Activity in Vivo, in Vitro, in Silico
Lelevich Sergey Vladimirovich, Khrustalev Vladislav Victorovich, Barkovsky Eugene Victorovich, Shedogubova Tatyana Aleksandrovna

American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
DOI: 10.12691/ajmsm-1-1-1

Clinical and Histological Features in Wegener Granulomatosis
Li Cavoli Gioacchino, Passantino Rita, Bono Luisa, Tortorici Calogera, Ferrantelli Angelo, Giammarresi Carlo, Rotolo Ugo

American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
DOI: 10.12691/ajidm-1-1-2

The Curse of Lymphatic Filariasis: Would the Continual Use of Diethylcarbamazine Eliminate this Scourge in Papua New Guinea?
Anne Lanham, Lillian Mwanri

We have released issues of some journals on February 2013.
American Journal of Public Health Research
American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
American Journal of Pharmacological Sciences
American Journal of Clinical Medicine Research
American Journal of Nursing Research
American Journal of Cancer Prevention
American Journal of Medicine Studies
American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
American Journal of Cardiovascular Disease Research
American Journal of Biomedical Research
American Journal of Mechanical Engineering
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Journal of Preventive Medicine
American Journal of Food and Nutrition
American Journal of Hypertension Research
American Journal of Sports Science and Medicine
Journal of Cancer Research and Treatment
American Journal of Zoological Research
Journal of Biomedical Engineering and Technology
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Biomedical Science and Engineering

We are pleased to announce that submissions are now being accepted for peer review for all the journals across all our subject areas in SciEP.

Please submit your manuscript via our online submission system:
http://www.sciepub.com/author/signin

To unsubscribe from our mailing list, please click on the following link: unsubscribe

I am looking forward to hearing from you.

Kind regards,

David Rain
Email:join@sciepub.com
Science and Education Publishing (http://www.sciepub.com)

Label_Title

Dear Label_Name,

Greetings! I hope you are well.

I am writing on behalf of an international publishing house, Science and Education Publishing, USA (http://www.sciepub.com).

Science and Education Publishing (SciEP) is a multidisciplinary open access publisher of Journals covering the fields of Science, Technology and Medicine. All SciEP publications are subject to high-quality peer review, editorial and production processes and are freely available online.

Welcome to the April, 2013 edition of SciEP newsletter, providing monthly summaries of articles on science & education related topics of interest to scientist and professionals. The mission of our journals is to provide an open access forum for publishing new findings on issues pertinent to scientific and academic field. We also invite you to submit original research papers, review articles, short reports, or case studies are considered for publication in our Multidisciplinary Journals.

American Journal of Public Health Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajphr-1-1-3

The Implementation of a Tele-Homecare System with Service Oriented Architecture and HL7 Message Transmission Standard
Ching-Sung Wang

American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajmbr-1-1-2

The Influence of Ethanol on Pyruvate Kinases Activity in Vivo, in Vitro, in Silico
Lelevich Sergey Vladimirovich, Khrustalev Vladislav Victorovich, Barkovsky Eugene Victorovich, Shedogubova Tatyana Aleksandrovna

American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
DOI: 10.12691/ajmsm-1-1-1

Clinical and Histological Features in Wegener Granulomatosis
Li Cavoli Gioacchino, Passantino Rita, Bono Luisa, Tortorici Calogera, Ferrantelli Angelo, Giammarresi Carlo, Rotolo Ugo

American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
DOI: 10.12691/ajidm-1-1-2

The Curse of Lymphatic Filariasis: Would the Continual Use of Diethylcarbamazine Eliminate this Scourge in Papua New Guinea?
Anne Lanham, Lillian Mwanri

We have released issues of some journals on February 2013.
American Journal of Public Health Research
American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
American Journal of Pharmacological Sciences
American Journal of Clinical Medicine Research
American Journal of Nursing Research
American Journal of Cancer Prevention
American Journal of Medicine Studies
American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
American Journal of Cardiovascular Disease Research
American Journal of Biomedical Research
American Journal of Mechanical Engineering
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Journal of Preventive Medicine
American Journal of Food and Nutrition
American Journal of Hypertension Research
American Journal of Sports Science and Medicine
Journal of Cancer Research and Treatment
American Journal of Zoological Research
Journal of Biomedical Engineering and Technology
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Biomedical Science and Engineering

We are pleased to announce that submissions are now being accepted for peer review for all the journals across all our subject areas in SciEP.

Please submit your manuscript via our online submission system:
http://www.sciepub.com/author/signin

To unsubscribe from our mailing list, please click on the following link: unsubscribe

I am looking forward to hearing from you.

Kind regards,

David Rain
Email:join@sciepub.com
Science and Education Publishing (http://www.sciepub.com)

Modeling the Pulp Oil Extraction with Water on Post-harvest Losses from the Safou Crop (Dacryodes edulis) in the Congo Basin. Main Factor Effects and Factors Interactions

Aymard Lipinda, Hubert Makomo, Bob Wilfrid Loumouamou*, Ulrich Tongo Tsakala, Thomas Silou, Jean-Mathurin Nzikou

Multidisciplinary Food and Nutrition Research Team. Food Chemistry and Technology Laboratory, Faculty of Sciences and Techniques, Marien Ngouabi University, BP: 69, Brazzaville, Congo

Abstract: The oil from the dried pulp from post-harvest losses from the safou crop (Dacryodes edulis) was extracted with hot water (50/90°C) and magnetic stirring (0/1000 rpm). Over a variation range of 8 to 38 %, the average value of the extraction yield obtained is 21.14%, with an experimental control yield of 25.14%, i.e. a difference of minus 15%. The effects of the factors studied are positive for the “extraction yield” response: extraction temperature (+9.558); extraction time (+2.916) and stirring speed (+2.387). The interactions of order 2 are negligible (X1X2, X1X3) or even zero (X2X3).

Keywords: modeling, extraction, experimental design, Dacryodes edulis, Congo-Brazzaville

Received April 18, 2024; Revised May 19, 2024; Accepted May 26, 2024

Citation: Aymard Lipinda, Hubert Makomo, Bob Wilfrid Loumouamou, Ulrich Tongo Tsakala, Thomas Silou, Jean-Mathurin Nzikou, Modeling the Pulp Oil Extraction with Water on Post-harvest Losses from the Safou Crop (Dacryodes edulis) in the Congo Basin. Main Factor Effects and Factors Interactions. Chemical Engineering and Science, 9 (1). 1-4. January 2024. doi:10.12691/ces-9-1-1

1. Introduction

The safou tree, emblematic tree of Central African landscapes, is an economically major crop in the sub-region [1,2,3,4,5] [6,7,8,9,10,11]. Safou, the fruit of the safou tree, is very fragile. It softens in less than a week and becomes unfit for consumption as edible fruit [12,13,14]. Traditionally it is kept dried or smoked [15]. In recent decades it has begun to be valued by extracting oil from the dried pulp. Drying and oil extraction are the key operations in the production of oil from safou pulp that should be modeled in order to optimize their yield [16,17,18,19,20]. The issue of oil production from safou pulp was timidly approached, at least for Cameroon [21].

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Drying of the Plant Material

The naturally softened safou pulp, one week after its harvest, was dried in open air to constant mass.

2.2. Extraction of Safou Pulp Oil with Water

The oil from the safou pulp was extracted by the local artisanal method. The dried, finely ground pulp (mass m1 (db)) placed in an aluminum container was hot extracted with water under stirring. The supernatant oil was collected using a syringe. Let m₂ be the mass of the oil obtained, the extraction yield is given by:

[picture] | (1)

2.3. Design of Experiments Method

Table 1. Levels of the 3 factors studied

The modeling was carried out using the design of experiments method as described previously [12,18]. We used a two-level full factorial design involving three factors and a control point 2³ (Table 1, Table 2).

Table 2. Matrix of Design of experiments du plan

3. Results and Discussion

Table 3 presents the design of experiments and the extraction yield response of the extraction of safou pulp oil by water.

Table 3. Design of experiments and the extraction yield response

3.1. Extraction Yield Response

The NemrodW software generated the following mathematical model:

Yt(%) = b₀ + b₁X₁ + b₂X₂ + b₃X₃ + b₁₂X₁X₂ + b₁₃X₁X₃ + b₂₃X₂X₃

with b0, the mean of the response Y which serves as the control point of the model; bi the coefficients of the factors effects Xi and bij the coefficients of the interactions between factors Xij. If the factors (Xi) are reduced and centered (xi) with xi = (Xi-X₀)/ΔX [22].

Yt(%) = b₀ + b₁x₁+ b₂x₂+ b₃x₃ + b₁₂x₁x₂ + b₁₃x₁x₃ + b₂₃x₂x₃

The coefficients have simple meanings: b₀ = response mean, bi = main factor effect and bij= interaction of factor effects.

The extraction of the safou pulp oil with water leads to the following model:

[picture] | (2)

The average extraction yield Y₀ generated by the design is equal to 21.44%; this value is very close to that of the experimental control point (run 9), which corresponds to a yield at the center of the design of 25.14%, i.e. a difference of less than 15%. Thus, validating the model.

Figure 1 brings together the main factors effects and second order interaction effects during oil extraction from safou pulp with water.

Figure 1. Coefficients bi of the factors effects and coefficients bij of the interaction effects between factors during oil extraction from safou pulp with water

3.2. Main Factors Effects

All main factor effects are positive and the extraction temperature effect is the most important (+ 9.559). In the study domain considered here, any increase in the value of one of these factors improves the extraction yield and the most significant increase in yield is observed for the increase in the extraction temperature. The coefficients relating to these effects were determined with a good level of significance (Table 4).

Table 4. Statistics of coefficients of factor effects and interactions during the water extraction of safou oil

3.3. Factors Interactions Effects

Figure 2 shows that the values of the coefficients of the order 2 interactions effects between factors were very low (b₁₂ = 0.484 and b₁₃= 1.242), or even nulles (b₂₃)

A more detailed examination of these interactions deal to finer trends of their evolution (Figure 2)

Figure 2. Schemas of main factor effects and second-order interaction effects between factors of oil extraction from safou pulp

For example, carefully observation of diagram 2f shows that:

Changing the extraction time from level 1 (30 min) to level 2 (180 min) when the mixture is heated to level 1 (50°C, dotted blue line) increases significantly the yield of extraction.

Carrying out the same operation under level 2 of heating (90°C, dotted red line) produces the same effect but with much higher yield values.

The representative curves of the quasi-parallel effects reflects an absence of interactions between the time and temperature factors of extraction.

Such a reading, extended to the 6 diagrams in Figure 2, further reveals the course of the process.

Finally, Figure 2 attests to important main factors effects: high value of the slopes of the dotted lines (blue and red); very weak second-order interaction effects: quasi-parallel red and blue dotted lines on the 6 diagrams (Figures 2a to Figure 2f).

Moreover, the correlation between the experimental values and the yield values generated by the model is almost perfect: R² = 0.9997 (Figure 3). This constitutes the ultimate validation of the mathematical model adopted.

Figure 3. Validation of the model by the experiment

4. Conclusion

Safou is a major crop in Central and West Africa which unfortunately records more than 50 % of post-harvest losses.

The oil is extracted from the dried pulp of softened safou (post-harvest losses) with an average yield of 24.14% over a variation range of 8-37%. In the experimental domain considered, the extraction temperature is the most important factor, followed in order by the extraction time and the stirring speed. The interactions of order 2 are negligible.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank the Higher School of Technology «Les Cataractes» for its multifaceted assistance in carrying out this work.

References

[1]   | Schreckenberg K, Degrande A, Mbosso C, Boli Baboule Z, Boyd C, Enyong L, Kanmegne J Ngong C. The Social And Economic Importance Of Dacryodes Edulis (G.Don) H.J. Lam in Southern Cameroon Forests, Trees and Livelihoods 12: 15–40, 2002.
[2]   | Waruhiu AN, Kengue J, Atangana AR, Tchoundjeu Z, Leakey RRB. Domestication of Dacryodes edulis: phenotypic variation of fruit traits in 200 trees in Cameroon. J Food Agric Environ. 2(1):340–346, 2004.
[3]   | Anegbeh PO, Ukafor V, Usoro C, Tchoundjeu Z, Leakey RRB, Schreckenberg K. Domestication of Dacryodes edulis: 1. Phenotypic variation of fruit traits from 100 trees in southeast Nigeria. New For 29(2): 149–160, 2005.
[4]   | Law DA. An energy analysis and characterization of safou (Dacryodes edulis) as biofuel feedstock. Master thesis Appalachian State University, 2010.
[5]   | Youmbi E, Mbeuyo M, Tchinda ND, Amougou A. Physico-chemical characterization and classification of fruits of Dacryodes edulis from the major agro-ecological zones of Cameroon. Fruits 66(6): 355-365, 2010.
[6]   | Tsombe Mulamba VE. Characterization of safou of Kinshasa by multivariable staticks. Edition Universitaires Européennes. Sarrebruck. Germany. 2011.
[7]   | Mayele Kipoy D. Le safou fruit d’avenir. Biodiversité morphologique et de la fraction lipidique de la pulpe des fruits du safoutier (Dacryodes edulis) du sud-ouest de la RD Congo. Editions Universitaires Européennes. Sarrebruck. Germany.2011.
[8]   | Silou T. Corps gras non conventionnels du Bassin du Congo: Caractérisation, biodiversité et qualité OCL 21(2): D209, 2014.
[9]   | Kadji Beugré RL, Kone FMT, Sika AE, Dabonne S. Physico-chemical properties of Safou (Dacryodes edulis) fruits grown in Côte d’Ivoire. Journal of Applied Biosciences 105: 10103 –10110, 2016.
[10]   | Ondo-Azi AS, Ella Missang C, Silou T. Caractérisation et potentialialité à l’huilerie des fruits du safoutier Editions Universitaires Européennes. Sarrebruck. Germany. 2017.
[11]   | Onuegbu NC. Dacryodes edulis: Composition and Physico-chemical Properties. In: Mariod A. (eds) Wild Fruits: Composition, Nutritional Value and Products. Springer, Cham 2019.
[12]   | Silou T, Massamba D, Goma Maniongui J, Maloumbi G, Biyoko S. Post-harvest losses by natural softening of safou pulp (Dacryodes edulis) in Congo Brazzaville, Journal of Food Engineering. 79: 392 – 400, 2006.
[13]   | Ella Missang C, Renardc MGC, Baron A, Drilleau JF. Cell wall polysaccharides of bush butter (Dacryodes edulis (G Don) H. J. Lam) fruit pulp and their evolution during ripening. J. Sci Food Agric. 81(8): 773–78, 2001.
[14]   | Dossou RB, Ella Missang C, Baron A,. Renard CMGC, Silou T. Factors affecting postharvest preservation of safou (Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H.J. Lam) fruits. Forests Trees and Livelihoods, 21(1): 44-55, 2012.
[15]   | Noumi GB, Dandjouma AK, Kapseu C, Parmentier M. Le savoir-faire local dans la valorisation alimentaire des fruits du safoutier (Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H.J. Lam) au Cameroun. Topicultura. 24 (1): 58-62, 2006.
[16]   | Noumi GB, Njouokam YM, Njiné CB, Ngameni E, Kapseu C. Effet du séchage sur le rendement et la qualité de l’huile extraite de la pulpe de safou. Tropicultura 29(3): 138–142, 2011.
[17]   | Ndindeng SA, Ambang Z, Woin N, NgomeFA, Njebu SA, Mapiemfu-Lamaré D, Walter Nkeabeng LekeW, Akoa Etoa JM, Chi GL, Mbah VT. 2012a. Valorization of Dacryodes edulis Fruit (Safou) through Improved Drying Procedures, Packaging and Processing. Frontiers in Science 2(6): 250-255.
[18]   | Mampouya D, Kama Niamayoua R, Goteni S, Loumouamou AN, Kinkela T, Silou T. of the Soxhlet Extraction of Oil from Safou Pulp (Dacryodes edulis). Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology 5(3): 230-235, 2013.

[19]  
Ondo-Azi AS, Ella Missang C, Nsikabaka S, Silou T, Chalchat JC. Variation in physicochemical and morphological characteristics of safou (Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H. J. Lam) fruits: Classification and identification of elite trees for industrial exploitation. Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment.12 (2): 2 1 2 - 2 1 7, 2014.

[20]   | Ondo-Azi AS, Ella Missang C, Silou T. Physicochemical Properties and Antioxidant Activity of Mixed Oil of Safou (Dacryodes edulis (G. Don) H.J. Lam) from Several Trees. Journal of Food Research. 9 (4): 50-59, 2020.
[21]   | Kenmegne Kamdem AT, Ali A, Tchengang C, Kapseu C. Problématique de la procution de l‘huie de safou au Cameroun. Fruits 52:325-330, 1997.
[22]   | Goupy J., Introduction aux plans d’expériences. 2ème Edition, Dunod, Paris, 2001.