Dear Label_Name,

Greetings! I hope you are well.

I am writing on behalf of an international publishing house, Science and Education Publishing, USA (http://www.sciepub.com).

Science and Education Publishing (SciEP) is a multidisciplinary open access publisher of Journals covering the fields of Science, Technology and Medicine. All SciEP publications are subject to high-quality peer review, editorial and production processes and are freely available online.

Welcome to the April, 2013 edition of SciEP newsletter, providing monthly summaries of articles on science & education related topics of interest to scientist and professionals. The mission of our journals is to provide an open access forum for publishing new findings on issues pertinent to scientific and academic field. We also invite you to submit original research papers, review articles, short reports, or case studies are considered for publication in our Multidisciplinary Journals.

American Journal of Public Health Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajphr-1-1-3

The Implementation of a Tele-Homecare System with Service Oriented Architecture and HL7 Message Transmission Standard
Ching-Sung Wang

American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajmbr-1-1-2

The Influence of Ethanol on Pyruvate Kinases Activity in Vivo, in Vitro, in Silico
Lelevich Sergey Vladimirovich, Khrustalev Vladislav Victorovich, Barkovsky Eugene Victorovich, Shedogubova Tatyana Aleksandrovna

American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
DOI: 10.12691/ajmsm-1-1-1

Clinical and Histological Features in Wegener Granulomatosis
Li Cavoli Gioacchino, Passantino Rita, Bono Luisa, Tortorici Calogera, Ferrantelli Angelo, Giammarresi Carlo, Rotolo Ugo

American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
DOI: 10.12691/ajidm-1-1-2

The Curse of Lymphatic Filariasis: Would the Continual Use of Diethylcarbamazine Eliminate this Scourge in Papua New Guinea?
Anne Lanham, Lillian Mwanri

We have released issues of some journals on February 2013.
American Journal of Public Health Research
American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
American Journal of Pharmacological Sciences
American Journal of Clinical Medicine Research
American Journal of Nursing Research
American Journal of Cancer Prevention
American Journal of Medicine Studies
American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
American Journal of Cardiovascular Disease Research
American Journal of Biomedical Research
American Journal of Mechanical Engineering
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Journal of Preventive Medicine
American Journal of Food and Nutrition
American Journal of Hypertension Research
American Journal of Sports Science and Medicine
Journal of Cancer Research and Treatment
American Journal of Zoological Research
Journal of Biomedical Engineering and Technology
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Biomedical Science and Engineering

We are pleased to announce that submissions are now being accepted for peer review for all the journals across all our subject areas in SciEP.

Please submit your manuscript via our online submission system:
http://www.sciepub.com/author/signin

To unsubscribe from our mailing list, please click on the following link: unsubscribe

I am looking forward to hearing from you.

Kind regards,

David Rain
Email:join@sciepub.com
Science and Education Publishing (http://www.sciepub.com)

Effect of Ivorian Taro (Colocasia esculenta L. cv yatan and fouê) Corm Flours Addition on Anti-nutritional Factors and Mineral Bioavailability of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Flour

Anon Attoh Hyacinthe, Yao Kouadio*, Dan Chépo Ghislaine, Amon Anon Simplice, Kouamé Lucien Patrice

Food Science and Technology Department, Biocatalysis and Bioprocesses Laboratory, Nangui Abrogoua University, Abidjan

Abstract: The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm flours (TCFyf) addition on anti-nutritional factors and mineral bioavailability of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flour (WF). WF was substituted with TCFyf at increasing levels [0% (control), 1%, 3%, 6%, 9% and 12%] in the formulation. Compared to WF, calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorous, sodium, copper, zinc, iron, manganese, phenolic compound, oxalate and flavonoid contents of wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan) corm composite flour (WF-TCFy) gradually increased with increasing the level of taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan) corm flour (TCFy) in WF-TCFy. The same trend was observed in potassium, phosphorous, copper, zinc, iron, manganese, phenolic compound, oxalate and flavonoid contents of wheat/Ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) composite flour (WF-TCFf) increased with increasing of taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) corm flour (TCFf) in WF-TCFf. Inversely, substitution of WF with TCFf caused gradual decreased in sodium, magnesium and calcium contents of WF-TCFf. Substitution of WF with TCFyf decreased phytate and tannin contents in the WF-TCFyf. The K/Na ratios were greater than 27. When WF substitution was achieved by TCFyf, the Ca/P ratio of the WF-TCFy did not change while that of WF-TCFf decreased. In all cases, the Ca/P ratios were below 0.3. The levels of the toxic substances were not high enough to cause concern as about 80 mg /g diet is detrimental to health. These results could encourage the use of TCFyf for the development of food products.

Keywords: anti-nutritional factor, composite flour, Colocasia esculenta, mineral, taro corm

Received August 04, 2018; Revised September 15, 2018; Accepted October 24, 2018

Citation: Anon Attoh Hyacinthe, Yao Kouadio, Dan Chépo Ghislaine, Amon Anon Simplice, Kouamé Lucien Patrice, Effect of Ivorian Taro (Colocasia esculenta L. cv yatan and fouê) Corm Flours Addition on Anti-nutritional Factors and Mineral Bioavailability of Wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) Flour. American Journal of Food and Nutrition, 6 (4). 126-134. January 2018. doi:10.12691/ajfn-6-4-5

1. Introduction

Taro (Colocasia esculenta L.) belongs to the genus Colocasia, within the sub-family Colocasioideae of the monocotyledonous family Araceae. It reproduces by vegetative propagation [1] and grown exclusively in the tropical and semitropical regions of the world [2]. This plant is cultivated mainly in developing countries, rarely on large plantations but on small farms with little technology [2]. Taro produces edible corms [3] and the leaves are also used as a vegetable [4]. It is one of the oldest major [5] and an important food staple for millions of people [2].

Taro (Colocasia esculenta L.) chemical composition is variable depending on the cultivar [6,7], growing conditions, kind of soil, moisture and fertilizer application, maturity at harvest, post-harvest management, storage [6] and corm parts [7,8]. In general, protein and fat content at corm are low but it is high in carbohydrates, fiber and minerals [6]. Taro corm has been reported to have 70-80% (dry weight basis) starch with small granules [9].

The free glucose content of corm is less than 1%. Whereas, the 60% of dry matter is composed of starch. The taro corms’starch is highly digestible and higher than the 50% of the starch is composed of rapidly digestible starch fractions [10]. Thanks to its high carbohydrate content, corm of taro is especially useful to persons allergic to cereals and can be consumed by children who are sensitive to milk [2].The glycemic index (GI) of taro corm is 63.1 ± 2.5, indicating taro corm as a medium GI food estimated glycemic index and a good dietary carbohydrate alternative especially for diabetic people [10] and athletes to reduce fatigue. According to [11], this food may exert its anti-diabetic action by delaying/regulating the rate at which dietary starch is hydrolyzed to glucose or possibly through inhibition of acute pancreatitis. Taro starch is also good for peptic ulcer patients, patients with pancreatic disease, chronic liver problems and inflammatory bowel disease and gall bladder disease [12].

Taro (Colocasia esculenta L.) corm is also a valuable source of essential mineral nutrients [13]. Potassium is the most abundant mineral [8,14] (763-1451 μg/100 g) with appreciable amounts noted for zinc (17-51.1 μg/100 g), magnesium (46.7-85.0 μg/100 g) and phosphorus (41.6-63.1 μg/100 g) [8]. The upper part, which plays a critical role in vegetative propagation based on headsets, contains high levels of P, Mg, Zn, Fe, Mn, Cu and Cd. The central part, which is essential for human nutrition, is characterized by higher concentrations of K, P, Mg, Zn, Fe, Cu and Cd. Calcium is concentrated in the lower and marginal parts [13].

Taro (Colocasia esculenta L.) corm contains also anti-nutritional factors include oxalates, proteinase inhibitors, phytates, tannins, alkaloids, steroids and cyanogenic glucosides [15,16,17,6]. This food is very rich in oxalates (the fresh samples are in the range of 328–460 μg/100 g, [8]. In connection with this, it causes limited utilizations of taro (Colocasia esculenta L.) as a food material. The insoluble oxalates, especially needle like calcium oxalate crystal may cause irritation, swelling of mouth and throat [18]. It is a major factor contributing to the anti-palatability and anti-nutritive effects of raw colocasia corms [19]. Consumption of a large amount of oxalate could be fatal to humans because of oxalosis or the formation of calcium oxalate deposits in vital tissues or organs of the body [20]. The patients with kidney stone problems should control dietary oxalate intake to less than 40-50 mg per day [21]. Removal of anti-nutritional factors in food can be done by physical processes, such as washing, peeling, dicing, blanching, drying, soaking overnight and cooking [18,22,23] or chemical process by converting them into soluble phases [18].

Due to its high moisture content, fresh taro corm is difficult to store and is vulnerable to deterioration during storage. One of the best ways to preserve it is by processing it into flour and/or starch [24,25]. According to [26], taro flour is stored much longer than the unprocessed corm. It can then be used with wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) floor in food formulations such as biscuit [27,28], cake [29], bread [30] [31,32], baby food [33], pasta [34], or other products [29]. Wheat is the third most produced cereal in the world after maize and rice [35]. It is a very important food crop for the daily intake of proteins, vitamins, minerals and fibers in a growing part of the world population [36]. Wheat flour, the main ingredient of the foods production is imported by countries with unfavourable climates for growing wheat. This importation has placed a considerable burden on the foreign exchange reserves of the economies of such importing countries. This has led to the development and use of composite flours for production of biscuit, bread, baby food, pasta, or other products [37]. Therefore, the objective of this study is to evaluate the effect of ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta L. cv yatan and fouê) corm flours addition on anti-nutritional factors and mineral bioavailability of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) flour. This is done because the nutritional value of a food depends upon its nutritional contents and their digestibility and the presence or absence of anti-nutrients and toxic factors [23].

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Materials

Taro (Colocasia esculenta, cv yatan and fouê) corms were used in this work. They were randomly harvested at maturity (9 months after planting) from a farm in Affery, South-East portion of Côte d’Ivoire (West Africa) in May 2013. They were immediately transported to the Laboratoire de Biocatalyse et des Bioprocédés (Université Nangui Abrogoua, Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire) and stored under prevailing tropical ambient conditions (19-28°C, 60-85% RH) for 24 h before the preparation of flours from raw taro corms [14]. The commercially available soft wheat flour was purchased from local suppliers at Bonoua market in Bassam, Côte d’Ivoire. The flour was cleaned of foreign materials and sieved through 75 μm. All chemicals and reagents used were of analytical grade and purchased from Sigma Chemical Company (USA).

2.2. Methods

2.2.1. Production of Taro Corm and Composite Flours

The ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta, cv yatan and fouê) corms were cleaned and rinsed with copious amounts of tap water. The corms were thereafter peeled using a stainless steel knife. The peeled samples were rewashed with clean water in order to remove much mucilaginous material. After washing, they were cut into slices 0.5 cm thick and dried to a brittle texture in a convection oven set at 45±3 °C for 24 h. The dried slices were fine-milled (500 μm) into flour using an electric grinder (Cullati, Polymix, France, Kinematica, Luzernerstrasse, Germany), packaged in polyethylene bags and stored at 4°C until required for further analysis [14]. Taro corm and wheat flours were blended in various proportions to come up with different formulations of wheat/taro as 99:1, 97:3, 94:6, 91:9 and 88:12. This was done for complementation purposes between the two flours. The different blends were named WF-TCF 1, WF-TCF 3, WF-TCF 6, WF-TCF 9 and WF-TCF 12 respectively (Table 1). The composite flours were produced by mixing in a blender (Moulinex brand, Paris, France) taro flour and wheat flour using a 2×7 factorial design consisting of two cultivars of taro flour (cv yatan and fouê).

Table 1. Showing blends of wheat flour and Ivorian Taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) Corm flours used in composite flour formulation

2.2.2. Mineral Composition

Sample product (4g) was ashed in a muffle furnance at 550°C. The ash was boiled with 10 ml of 20% hydrochloric acid in a beaker, filtered into a 100 ml standard flask and made up to the mark with de-ionized water. The blank solutions were prepared in the same manner as the samples. The minerals, such as calcium, copper, iron, magnesium, sodium, potassium and zinc of wheat/taro composite flours and wheat flour were analyzed according to the method prescribed by [38] with an atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Pye-Unicam 969, Cambridge, UK). Phosphorus was determined by the vanadomolybdate colorimetric method (UV-visible spectrophotometer, JASCO V-530, Model Tudc 12 B4, Japan Servo Co. Ltd., Indonesia) using potassium dihydrogen phosphate as the standard [39].

2.2.3. Anti-nutritional Factors

Oxalate level was estimated by the method of [40]. Oxalic acid was extracted from wheat flour and composite flour prepared by mixing wheat flour and ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta, cv yatan and fouê) corm flours and precipitated as calcium salt, then dissolved in hot 25% sulphuric acid. The concentration of oxalates in the solution was determined by titration with KMnO4. Phytates content was determined by the method described by [41]. Phytate was precipitated with excess ferric chloride and the phytin was determined directly by estimating the amount of phosphorus present in the ferric phytate precipitate. The total phenolic compound contents were determined as described in [42] from the methanol extracts using Folin-Ciocalteu reagent [43]. The standard used was tannic acid. The total tannin analyzis was conducted using the method of [39]. The total flavonoid concentration was measured using a colorimetric assay developed by [39] It was calculated using quercetin as standard.

2.3. Statistical Analyzis

All data analyzes were done in triplicates and subjected to analyzis of variance (ANOVA) as described by [14]. The means were then separated with the use of Duncan’s multiple range test, compared by Least Significant Difference (LSD) with mean square error at 5% probability using the statistical package for the social sciences, SPSS 19.0 software.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1. Macro Minerals

The presence of five macro minerals (potassium, phosphorous, calcium, magnesium and sodium) was investigated in the wheat flour and wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm composite flours. The results are shown in Table 2 and Table 3. Potassium was the most abundant macro mineral in the wheat flour and composite flours. Phosphorous was the second most common macro mineral, third most macro mineral was calcium and appreciable amount of magnesium was also noted. Sodium tended to be low. This sequence of abundance of the macro minerals in the wheat flour and wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm composite flours differed to the observations of [45,46,47].

Analyzis on the data (Table 2 and Table 3) showed that significant differences (p<0.05) existed in the macro mineral contents of the wheat flour and wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm composite flours studied. Compared to wheat flour (control formula); calcium, potassium, magnesium, phosphorous and sodium contents of wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan) corm composite flour gradually increased with increasing the level of taro corm flour in composite flour. This may be due to the increasing of these macro mineral levels in ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan) corm flour. Similar observations were found by [48,49]. The same trend was observed in potassium and phosphorous contents of wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) corm composite flour increased with increasing of taro corm flour in composite flour. Inversely, substitution of wheat flour with Ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) corm flour caused gradual decreased in sodium, magnesium and calcium contents of wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) corm composite flour. These observations could be attributed to Ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) corm flour which had lower content of sodium, magnesium and calcium than those of wheat flour. These results were in close conformity with the findings of [50] in composite flour from wheat-sorghum.

The macro mineral (potassium, phosphorous, magnesium, calcium and sodium) contents were found to be higher in the wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan) corm composite flours than of the composite flours from wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) corm. This suggested that in taro corm, the level of mineral nutrient available varied with cultivar. The ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan) corm contained more potassium, phosphorous, magnesium, calcium and sodium than ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) corm.

Variations in the potassium content of the wheat flour and wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm composite flours were observed with values ranging from 173.16±0.11 to 206.69±0.43 mg/100g. These values were found to be higher when compared with the earlier reports of composite flours from wheat-sorghum [50], sorghum-maize [47] and sorghum-african yam bean [51]. Wheat flour and wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm composite flours were found to contain higher level of potassium when compared with RDA’s of infants and children (<1550 mg) [52]. The high content of potassium can be utilized beneficially in the diets of people who take diuretics to control hypertension and suffer from excessive excretion of potassium through the body fluid [53]. Potassium is very essential in blood clothing and muscle contraction [51]. Sodium in association with potassium is useful for maintenance of body fluids [54]. It was found to be the lowest macro mineral in the wheat flour and wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm composite flours, with values ranging from 3.49±0.14 to 7.52±0.23 mg/100g. This signified that the wheat and ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm flours were low in sodium. This finding is important because much sodium in diet increases the risk of high blood pressure, stroke, heart disease and kidney disease. When wheat flour substitution was achieved by ivoirian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm flours, the K/Na ratios were greater than 27. Foods naturally higher in potassium than sodium may have a K/Na ratio of 4.0 or more [55]. The high K/Na suggested that the composite flours from wheat and ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta, cv yatan and fouê) corm could be suitable in helping to ameliorate sodium-related health risk [56].

The phosphorous content of wheat flour in this study was 147.37±0.05 mg/100g while those of composite flours from wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm flours with different levels of taro corm flour substitution ranged from 147.5±0.14 to 181.13±0.02 mg/1001g. The variations of phosphorous contents in wheat flours were observed in the literature from 3 to 350 mg/100g [57,58]. Thus, in the present study, the contents of this macro mineral observed are included in these variation ranges. Probably, the factors influencing these differences are the genetic characteristics of the cultivars, the vegetal maturity and the phosphorous levels in the soil. Phosphorous helps in the formation of adenosine triphosphate in the body [59]. Its contribution to RDA ranged from 32.1-42.9%, in both adult males and females, respectively if 250g flour is eaten daily [60]. Calcium plays significant roles in blood clothing and muscle contraction in humans [61]. It assists in bone formation [62]. Results showed that its contribution to RDA ranged from 17.5-22.5% in both adult males and females, respectively if 250g flour is eaten daily [60]. The calcium content of wheat flour in this study was 30.81±0.01 mg/100g while those of composite flours from wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm flours ranged from 27.59±0.07 to 38.67±0.05 mg/1001g. In regard to calcium, the values reported in this study are in agreement with those reported by [63]. Calcium contents obtained from this study were considerably higher than reported in others studies that obtained between 10 to 21 mg/100g [64,58]. Results showed that calcium contribution to RDA ranged from 17.5-22.5% in both adult males and females, respectively if 250g flour is eaten daily [60]. When wheat flour substitution was achieved by taro flour, the Ca/P ratio of the composite flour from wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan) corm did not change while that of wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) decreased. In all cases, the Ca/P ratios were below 0.3. However, according to [65], a good menu should have a Ca/P ratio over 1. Phosphorus works closely with calcium to build strong bones and teeth. It is stored in the bone as calcium phosphate [66]. Foods high in phosphorus and low in calcium tend to make the body over acid deplete it of calcium and other minerals and increase the tendency towards inflammations [57]. In order to avoid these problems, these flours need to supplementation with calcium to prevent mineral and osmotic imbalance.

Table 2. Effect of Ivorian Taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan) Corm Flour Addition on the Macro Mineral Bioavailability of Wheat Flour

Table 3. Effect of Ivorian Taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) Corm Flour Addition on the Micro Mineral Contents of Wheat Flour

Magnesium is essential to good health because it helps to maintain normal muscle and nerve function, keeps heart rhythm steady, supports a healthy immune system, keeps bones strong [66] and also plays a role in regulating the acid alkaline balance of the body [62]. By comparing the contents of magnesium in the composite flours (107.99 to 205.93mg/100g) from wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm with the others composite flours from sorghum-african yam bean [51] and wheat/sweet potato [64] of this mineral, it was observed that wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm composite flours are rich in magnesium.

3.2. Micro Minerals

Selected micro minerals (Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn) were analyzed and the results are shown in Table 4 and Table 5. In general, the highest micro mineral found in the wheat flour and composite flours consisting wheat and ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm is iron which range between 1.00±0.02 to 1.23±0.07 mg/100g, followed by zinc from 0.73±0.03 to 0.94±0.23 mg/100g, Mn from 0.71±0.10 to 0.86±0.46 mg/100g and finally copper between 0.12±0.02 to 0.18±0.04 mg/100g. Substitution of wheat flour with ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm flours caused gradual increased in Cu, Zn, Fe and Mn contents of wheat/ivorian taro corm composite flours. In this regard, the possible increment of micro mineral contents with increasing taro corm flour could be due to the fact that taro corm flour is rich source of micro minerals and it is imperative to blend wheat flour with it to enhance the micro mineral contents. Analyzis on the data showed that significant differences (p<0.05) existed in the micro mineral contents of the wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan) corm composite flour and wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) corm composite flour studied. Composite flour from wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan) corm flour showed superior performance in terms of micro mineral constituents except for Mn and iron where composite flour from wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) corm had the highest content.

Zinc is an essential metal and a component of a wide variety of different enzymes in which it is involved in catalytic, structural and regulatory roles [67]. This micro mineral acts as an activator of many enzyme systems in humans [68]. Zinc constitutes about 33 ppm of adult body weight and is essential of many enzymes involved in a number of physiological functions, such as protein synthezis and energy metabolism [67]. WHO has recommended permissible limit of Zn in foods such as 60 mg/kg [69]. The contents of this micro mineral in composite flours from wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê)corm were below the limit. The zinc contents were within the range of 0.42 to % 1.72 mg/100g reported by [70] for composite flour from breadfruit, breadnut and wheat, but higher than 0.52-0.68 mg/100g as found by [63]. However, these values were below the range of 2.85 to 2.95 mg/100g reported by [57].

Iron (Fe) deficiency anemia for instance affect one third of the worlds population. On the other hand, excessive intake of iron is associated with an increase risk of colorectal cancer [71]. Iron levels reported in this study were however far lower than those reported by other authors. [58] reported values such as 3.77-4.14 mg/100g, [57] had values such as 3.92-4.06 mg/100g and 4.08-5.63 mg/100g was reported by [72]. The maximum and minimum iron values determined in the wheat flour and wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm composite flours are below the limit of 15 mg/kg set by [69].

Table 4. Effect of Ivorian Taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan) Corm Flour Addition on the Micro Mineral Contents of Wheat Flour

Table 5. Effect of Ivorian Taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) Corm Flour Addition on the Micro Mineral Contents of Wheat Flour

Copper is an essential constituent of some metalloenzymes and is required in haemoglobin synthezis and in the catalyzis of metabolic growth [73]. Copper concentrations determined in this study are below the safe limit set by World Health Organization (WHO) (40 mg/kg) as copper in foods [69]. The samples may also be capable of contributing to the absorption of copper in view of concerns that suboptimal copper status maybe involved in developing many inflammatory and degenerative conditions such as osteoporosis and heart disease [64].

According to [75], manganese is an essential metal and it plays an important role in biological systems such as its presence in metalloproteins. The highest and lowest manganese concentrations determined in this work are far below the toxicity limit between 400-1000 mg/kg of manganese in plant. Manganese content obtained from this study were considerably lower than reported in other study [57,76,51].

3.3. Anti-nutritional Factors

The effect of ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm flours addition on anti-nutritional factors of wheat flour is indicated in Table 6 and Table 7. The anti-nutritional factors (tannins, phytates, phenolic compounds, flavonoids and oxalates) contents of wheat flour were 195.49±0.24, 16.45± 0.04, 202.38± 0.04, 5.09±0.01 and while those of wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm composite flours with different levels of taro corm flour substitution ranged from 195.49±0.24 to 62.70±0.24, 16.45± 0.04 to 12.45±0.04, 202.38± 0.04 to 426.58±1.40, 5.09±0.01 to 22.68±0.06 and 22.41±0.84 to 80.4±0.84 mg/100g. The levels of the toxic substances were not high enough to cause concern as about 80 mg/g diet is detrimental to health. It is, however noteworthy that some of these toxicants, namely phytate, oxalate and tannin, can reduce nutrient bioavailability [77,78,79,70,80]. On the whole, it appears that wheat flour and wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm composite flours could serve as a good source of some nutrients and hence maybe used to substitute wheat flour in baking and confectionery foods [70].

There was a significant difference (p <0.05) amongst the samples. This pattern is in accordance with that reported by [81]. The results revealed that substitution of wheat flour with ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm flours significantly (p < 0.05) increased the phenolic compound, oxalate and flavonoid contents of the mixture increased as the percentage of substitution of taro flour increased. This may be attributed to high phenolic compound, oxalate and flavonoid contents of taro flour than wheat flour. These results are in accordance with those reported by [82,81,33,83]. Inversely to phenolic compounds, oxalates and flavonoids, wheat flour had higher phytates and tannins than wheat/ivorian taro composite flours. This means that, substitution of wheat flour with taro corm flour decreased phytate and tannin contents in the composite flours consisting wheat and ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm. This finding agrees with the report of [81,33,63].

Table 6. Effect of Ivorian Taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan) Corm Flour Addition on the Anti-nutritional Factors Contents of Wheat Flour

Table 7. Effect of Ivorian Taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) Corm Flour Addition on the Anti-nutritional Factors Contents of Wheat Flour

Among the two cultivars (cv yatan and fouê) of ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta), the corms of Colocasia esculenta (cv fouê) contained more phenolic compounds. This value is found to be higher than that of the earlier studies in the composite flours from white skinned sweet potato-unripe plantain [83]. This pattern indicates that taro (Colocasia esculenta, cv fouê) corm could exhibit a wide range of health promoting function such as anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, hepato-protective, anti-thrombotic, anti-viral, anti-diabetic and anti-hypertensive activities [84]. It contains strong antioxidants which prevent oxidative damage to biomolecules such as DNA, lipids and proteins which play a role in chronic diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular diseases [85].

Flavonoids are known to possess anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, anti-allergic, anti-viral and anti-neoplastic activity [86]. The levels of this substance in composite flours from wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan) corm flours were found to be lower when compared with the composite flours from wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) corm flours. This is in indication that the taro Colocasia esculenta (cv fouê) corms contained more flavonoids than ivorian taro Colocasia esculenta (cv yatan) corm.

The tannin and oxalate levels in composite flours from wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan) corm flour were significantly higher (p < 0.05) than those in the composite flours from wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) corm. This could be due to the high levels of tannin and oxalate in ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan) corm flour than ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) corm flour. The oxalate contents of composite flours consisting wheat and ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm in this study were within the range of oxalate content (0.07 to 430 mg/100g) of composite flours from wheat/non-wheat reported by various authors [33,81]. The highest value of phytate was observed in composite flour containing 70% whole wheat and 30% whole sorghum flours whereas, the lowest value of phytate was observed in composite flour containing 70% pearled wheat and 30% sorghum flours [50]. The results obtained for phytate contents in this study are similar to the reports of [87,88] who observed that pearling reduced the phytic acid to a considerable extent. Tannins are also well known for their antioxidant and antimicrobial properties as well as for soothing relief, skin regeneration, as anti-inflammatory and diuresis [89]. The tannin contents of the wheat flour and composite flours from wheat/ivorian taro corm obtained in this study are lower than the tannin contents of sorghum-soy-plantain flours (23.8-27.4%) reported by [90,91] reported higher tannin contents for malted sorghum-soy composite flour (18.9-27.6%).

4. Conclusion

The composite flour consisting wheat and ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm flours possessed good potassium, phosphorous, magnesium, sodium, copper, zinc, iron, manganese contents and K/Na ratio. The K/Na ratios were greater than 27. Ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan) had positive effect on potassium, phosphorous, magnesium, sodium, calcium, copper, zinc, iron, manganese contents and K/Na ratio while ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv fouê) exerted positive effect on potassium, phosphorous, copper, zinc, iron, manganese contents and K/Na ratio. The composite flours from wheat/ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm flours contained phenolic compounds, flavonoids, oxalates, phytates and tannins. But, the levels of these toxic substances were not high enough to cause concern as about 80 mg /g diet is detrimental to health. These results could encourage the use of ivorian taro (Colocasia esculenta cv yatan and fouê) corm flours for the development of food products and help reduce dependence on importation of wheat. Meanwhile, consumption of these products should be accompanied with calcium rich diets such in order to eat a nutritionally balanced diet.

References

[1]   | Azene, H. and Molla, T., Nutritional composition and effects of cultural processing on anti-nutritional factors and mineral bioavailability of Colocasia esculenta (Godere) grown in Wolaita zone, Ethiopia. Journal of Food and Nutrition Sciences, 5(4): 147-154, 2017.
[2]   | Huang, C-C., Chen, W-C. and Wang, C-C.R., Comparison of Taiwan paddy- and upland-cultivated taro (Colocasia esculenta L.) cultivars for nutritive values. Food Chemistry, 102(1): 250-256. 2007.
[3]   | Chay-Prove, P. and Goebel, R., Taro: the plant. Department of primary industries and fisheries note. Queensland Government Australia. 2004.
[4]   | Aregheore, E. and Perera, D., Dry matter, nutrient composition and palatability/acridity of eight exotic cultivars of cocoyams-taro (Colocasia esculenta) in Samoa. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition, 58: 1-8. 2003.
[5]   | Muñoz-Cuervo, I., Malapa, R., Michalet, S. and Lebot, V., Legendre L. Secondary metabolite diversity in taro, Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott, corms. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 52: 24-32. 2016.
[6]   | Temesgen, M. and Retta, N., Nutritional potential, health and food security benefits of taro Colocasia esculenta (L.): A review. Food Science and Quality Management, 36: 23-30. 2015.
[7]   | Kristl, J., Ivancic, A., Mergedus, A., Sem, V., Kolar, M. and Lebot, V., Variation of nitrate content among randomly selected taro (Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott) genotypes and the distribution of nitrate within a corm. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 47: 76-81. 2016.
[8]   | Sefa-Dedeh, S. and KofiAgyir-Sackey, E., Chemical composition and the effect of processing on oxalate content of cocoyam Xanthosoma sagittifolium and Colocasia esculenta Cormels. Food Chemistry, 85(4): 479-487. 2004.
[9]   | Jane, J., Shen, L., Lim, S., Kasemsuwantt, T. and Nip, W.I.K., Physical and studies of taro starches and flours. Cereal Chemistry, 69: 528-535. 1992.
[10]   | Simsek, S. and Nehir, E.l.S., Production of resistant starch from taro (Colocasia esculenta L. Schott) corm and determination of its effects on health by in vitro methods. Carbohydrate Polymers, 90(3): 1204-1209. 2012.
[11]   | Eleazu, C.O., Okafor, P.N. and Ifeoma, I., Biochemical basis of the use of Cocoyam (Colocassia esculenta L.) in the dietary management of diabetes and its complications in streptozotocin induced diabetes in rats. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Disease, 4(2): s705-s711. 2014.
[12]   | Emmanuel-Ikpeme, C.A., Eneji, C.A. and Essiet, U., Storage stability and sensory evaluation of taro chips fried in palm oil, palm olein oil, groundnut oil, soybean oil and their blends. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 6(6): 570-575. 2007.
[13]   | Mergedus, A., Kristl, J., Ivancic, A., Sober, A., Sustar, V., Krizan, T. and Lebot, V., Variation of mineral composition in different parts of taro (Colocasia esculenta) corms. Food Chemistry, 170: 37-46. 2015.
[14]   | Amon, A.S., Soro, R.Y., Koffi, P.K.B., Dué, E.A. and Kouamé, L.P., Biochemical characteristics of flours from ivorian taro (Colocasia Esculenta, Cv Yatan) corm as affected by boiling time. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology, 3(6): 424-435. 2011.
[15]   | Bassir, O., Toxic substances in Nigerian foods. West African Journal of Biochemistry and Applied Chemistry, 13: 3-6. 1969.
[16]   | Liebman, M., The truth About Oxalate: Answers to frequently asked questions. The vulvar pain news letter, no.22 [online]. Available from: <http//_www. vulvar pain foundation.org/vpf news letteLhtm>. (2002).
[17]   | Steiner, T., Mosenthin, R., Zimmerman, B., Greiner, R. and Roth, S., Distribution of phytase activity, total phosphorus and phytate phosphorus in legume seeds, cereals and cereal by-products as influenced by harvest year and cultivar. Animal Feed Science and Technology. 133: 320-334. 2007.
[18]   | Kumoro, A.C., Putri, D.A., Budiyati, C.S. and Retnowati, D.S., Ratnawati Kinetics of calcium oxalate reduction in taro (Colocasia esculenta) corm chips during treatments using baking soda solution. Procedia Chemistry, 9: 102-112. 2014.
[19]   | Ravindran, V., Sivakanesan, R. and Cyril, H.W., Nutritive value of raw and processed Colocasia (Colocasia esculenta) corm meal for poultry. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 57(4); 335-345. 1996.
[20]   | Sanz, P.M.P. and Reig, R.M.D., Clinical and pathological findings in fatal plant oxalosis. The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology, 13: 342-345. 1992.
[21]   | American Dietetic Association. Position of the American Dietetic Association: fortification and nutritional supplements. Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 105(8): 1300-1311. 2005.
[22]   | Shanthakumari, S., Mohan, V.R. and De Britto, A.J., Nutritional evaluation and elimination of toxic principles in wild yam (Dioscorea spp.). Tropical and Subtropical Agroecosystems, 8: 319-325. 2008.
[23]   | Alcantara, R.M., Hurtada, W.A. and Dizon, E.I., The nutritional value and phytochemical components of taro [Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott] powder and its selected processed foods. Nutrition & Food Science, 3(3): 1000207. 2013.
[24]   | Perez, E., Schultzb, F.S. and Pacheco de Delahaye, E., Characterization of some properties of starches isolated from Xanthosoma saggitifolium (tannia) and Colocasia esculenta (Taro). Carbohydrate Polymer, 60: 139-145. 2005.
[25]   | Aboubakar, Y.N., Scher, J. and Mbofung, C.M.F., Physicochemical, thermal properties and microstructure of six varieties of taro (Colocasia esculenta L. Schott) flours and starches. Journal of Food Engineering, 86: 294-305. 2008.
[26]   | Kwarteng, J.A. and Towler, M.J., West african agriculture. A textbook for schools and colleges. Macmillan pub. London, 128-129. 1994.
[27]   | Himeda, M., Yanou, N.N., Fombang, E., Facho, B., Kitissou, P., Carl, M.F. and Scher, J., Chemical composition, functional and sensory characteristics of wheat-taro composite flours and biscuits. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 51(9): 1893-1901. 2014.
[28]   | Alften, T.A., Quast, E., Bertan, L.C. and Bainy, E.M., Partial substitution of wheat flour with taro (Colocasia esculenta) flour on cookie quality. Revista Ciˆencias Exatas e Naturais, 18(2): 202-212. 2016.
[29]   | Akusu, O.M., Kiin-Kabari, D.B. and Ebere, C.O., Effect of substitution levels on the physicochemical and sensory properties of cake and chin-chin Made from wheat/cocoyam flour blends. International Journal of Food and Nutritional Science, 5(4): 40-49. 2016.
[30]   | Mongi RJ, Ndabikunze BK, Chove BE, Mamiro P, Ruhembe CC, Ntwenya JG. Proximate composition, bread characteristics and sensory evaluation of cocoyam -wheat composite breads. African Journal of Food, Agriculture, Nutrition and Development. 2011; 11 (7): 5586-5599.
[31]   | Md Bellal, H., Effect of taro flour addition on the functional and physiochemical properties of wheat flour and dough for the processing of bread. Nutrition & Food Science International Journal, 1(2): 555556. 2016.
[32]   | Abera, G., Solomon, W.K. and Bultosa, G., Effect of drying methods and blending ratios on dough rheological properties, physical and sensory properties of wheat–taro flour composite bread. Food Science and Nutrition, 5: 653-661. 2017.
[33]   | Ali, A.O., El-Aziz, M.A., Kassem, J.M. and Abd El-Ghany, Z.M., Effect of substitution of wheat flour with taro flour on some properties of weaning food formula. Journal of Applied Sciences Research, 9(6): 3985-3991. 2013.
[34]   | Baljeet, S.Y., Ritika, B.Y., Manisha, K. and Bhupender, S.K., Studies on suitability of wheat flour blends with sweet potato, Colocasia and water chestnut flours for noodle making. LWT - Food Science and Technology, 57(1): 352-358. 2014.

[35]  
Van den Broeck, H.C., de Jong, H.C., Salentijn, E.M., Dekking, L., Bosch, D., Hamer, R.J., Gilissen, J.W.J., Van der Meer, I.M. and Smulders, M.J., Presence of Celiac Disease Epitopes in Modern and Old Hexaploid Wheat Varieties: Wheat Breeding May Have Contributed to Increased Prevalence of Celiac Disease. Theoretical and Applied Genetics, 121(8): 1527-1539. 2010.

[36]   | Cummins, A.G., Roberts-Thomson, I.C., Prevalence of Celiac Disease in the Asia–Pacific Region. Journal of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, 24: 1347-1351. 2009.
[37]   | Okpala, L.C. and Egwu, P.N., Utilisation of Broken Rice and Cocoyam Flour Blends in the Production of Biscuits. Nigerian Food Journal, 33(1): 8-11. 2015.
[38]   | Onwuliri, V.A. and Anekwe, G.E. Proximate and Elemental Composition of Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lim). Medical Science Research, 20: 103-104. 1992.
[39]   | AOAC., Official Methods of Analysis. Association of Official Analytical Chemists, Washington D.C. 1980.
[40]   | Dye, W.B., Chemical Studies on Halogeton Glumeratus. Weed Science Society of America, 4(1): 55-60. 1956.
[41]   | Wheeler, E.L. and Ferrel, R.E., A Method for Phytic Acid Determination in Wheat and Wheat Fraction. American Association of Cereal Chemists, 48: 312-320. 1971.
[42]   | Hanson, P.M., Yang, R.Y., Wu, J., Chen, J.T., Ledesma, D., Tsou, S.C.S. and Lee T.C., Variation for Antioxidant Activity and Antioxidants in Tomato. Journal of the American Society for Horticultural Science, 129: 704-711. 2004.
[43]   | Singleton, V.L. and Rossi, J.A., Colorimetry of total phenolics with phosphomolybdic-phosphotungstic acid reagents. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 16: 144-158. 1965.
[44]   | SAS., Statistical Analysis System. User’s Guide Version 6, Fourth Edition, Vol. 2. Carry, N. C.: SAS Inst., Inc., pp: 846. 1989.
[45]   | Lyimo, M.E., Gimbi, D.M. and Shayo, N.B., Nutritional Evaluation of Composite Flour Based on Root and Tuber Crops and Sensory Acceptability of the Developed Products. Proceedings of the 13 ISTRC Symposium, Arusha, Tanzania, pp. 514-520. 2007.
[46]   | Adelakun, O.E. and Lawal, M.A., Evaluation of Wheat Cassava and Soymalt Composite Flour Influence on Biscuit Quality. Pakistan Journal of Food Science, 27(1): 53-60. 2017.
[47]   | Lawal, R.T., Suliman, W.K., Ishola, A.D., Olayiwola, A.T. and Ajao, F.D., Changes in Selected Chemical Compositions of Fermented Sorghum and Maize Grain Flours. Asian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 2(2): 50-54. 2015.
[48]   | Hussein, A.M.S., KamiL, M.M., Hegazy N.A. and Abo, S.A.H., Effect of Wheat Flour Supplemented with Barely and/or Corn Flour on Balady Bread Quality. Polish Journal Of Food And Nutrition Sciences, 63(1): 11-18. 2013.
[49]   | Agbaje, R.B., Oloye, D.A., Olatunji, C.A. and Olawale-Olakunle, O.E., Anti-nutrient and Mineral Properties of Complementry Food Produced From Malted Red Sorgum and Defatted Soybean Flour Blend. Archive of Food and Nutritional Science, 1: 033-038. 2017.
[50]   | Salim-Ur-Rehman, Ahmad, M.M., Bhatti, I.A., Shafique, R., Din, G.M.U., Murtaza, M.A., Effect of Pearling on Physico-chemical, Rheological Characteristics and Phytate Content of Wheat-Sorghum Flour. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 38(3): 711-719. 2006.
[51]   | Okoye, J.I., Ene, G.I. and Ojobor, C.C., Chemical Composition and Functional Properties of Sorghum-African Yam Bean Flour Blends. Sky Journal of Food Science, 6(2): 021-026. 2017.
[52]   | NRC/NAS., National Research Council/Committee on Dietary Allowances. 9th edn. National Academy of Science Press, Washington DC, USA. 1980.
[53]   | Siddhuraju, P., Becker, K. and Makkar, H.P.S., Chemical Composition and Protein Fractionation, Essential Amino Acid Potential and Anti-metabolic Constituents of an Unconventional Legume, Gila Bean (Entada phaseolides Merr.) Seed Kernel. Journal of Science Food and Agriculture, 82: 192-202. 2001.
[54]   | Omole, J.O., The Chemical of Caesalphnia pucherima. Nigerian Journal of Animal Production, 30(1): 15-19. 2003.
[55]   | CIHFI., Potassium/Sodium Ratio (K/Na ratio). The Center for the Improvement of Human Functioning International. Wichita, USA, Retrieved from: http://biocenterlab. org/tests/urine/kna.shtml, (Accessed on: August 14, 2010). 2008.
[56]   | Appiah, F., Oduro, I. and Ellis, W.O., Proximate and Mineral Composition of Artocarpus altilis Pulp Flour as Affected by Fermentation. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 10(7): 653-657. 2011.
[57]   | Khan, M.I., Anjum, F.M., Zahoor, T., Sarwar, M. and Wahab, S., Nutritional Characterization of the Wheat-Soy Unleavened Flat Bread by Rat Bioassay. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 25(1): 73-80. 2009.
[58]   | Okoye,, J.I. and Obi, C.D., Chemical Composition and Sensory Properties of Wheat-African Yam Bean Composite Flour Cookies. Journal of Agriculture and Food Sciences, 5(2): 21-27. 2017.
[59]   | Okaka, J.C., Akobundu, E.N.T. and Okaka, A.N.C., Food and Human Nutrition: An Integrated Approach. 3rd Edn. Ocjanco Academic Publishers, Enugu, Nigeria. pp. 132-142. 2006.
[60]   | Adeniji, T.A., Sanni, L.O., Barimalaa, I.S. and Hart, A.D., Mineral Composition of Five Improved Varieties of Cassava. Nigerian Food Journal, 25(2): 39-44. 2007.
[61]   | Abbey, B.W. and Berezi, P.E., Influence of Processing on the Digestibility of African Yam Bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) Flour. Nutrition Reports International, 32: 819-827. 1988.
[62]   | Fallon, S. and Enig, M.G., Nourishing Traditions. The Cookbook that Challenges Politically Correct Nutrition and the Diet Decorates. Revised 2nd Edn. Pp.40-45. 2001.
[63]   | Dako, E., Retta, N. and Desse, G., Effect of Blending on Selected Sweet Potato Flour With Wheat Flour on Nutritional, Anti-nutritional and Sensory Qualities of Bread. Global Journal of Science Frontier Research: Agriculture and Veterinary, 16(4): 31-41. 2016.
[64]   | Idolo, I., Sensory and Nutritional Quality of Madiga Produced From Composite Flour of Wheat and Sweet Potato. Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 10(11): 1004-1007. 2011.
[65]   | SCSG., Calcium to Phosphorus Ratios in Food. Glider Vet. Sun Coast Sugar Gliders. Retrieve from: http://www.sugar-gliders.com/glidervet-60.htm. 2007.
[66]   | Igbabul, B., Num, G. and Amove, J., Quality Evaluation of Composite Bread Produced from Wheat, Maize and Orange Fleshed Sweet Potato Flours. American Journal of Food Science and Technology, 25(4):109-115. 2014.
[67]   | Ma, J. and Betts, N.M., Zinc and Copper Intakes and Their Major Food Sources For Older Adults in the 1994-96 Continuing Survey of Foodintakes by Individual 9CSF-II). Journal of Nutrition, 130: 2838-2843. 2000.
[68]   | Apata, D.F., Ologhobo, A.D., Biochemical Evaluation of Some Nigerian Legume Seeds. Food Chemistry, 49(3): 333-338. 1994.
[69]   | World Health Organaiztion (WHO)., Evaluation of Certain Foods Additives and Contaminants (Tweenty-Six Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives). WHO Technical Report series, No. 683 Geneva. 1982.
[70]   | Malomo, S.A., Eleyinmi, A.F. and Fashakin, J.B., Chemical Composition, Rheological Properties and Bread Making Potentials of Composite Flours From Breadfruit, Breadnut and Wheat. African Journal of Food Science, 5(7): 400-410. 2011.
[71]   | Senesse, P., Meance, S., Cottet, V., Faivre, J., Boutron-Ruault, M.C., High Dietary Iron and Copper and Risk of Cancer: a Case-Control Study in Burgundy, France. Journal Nutrition and Cancer, 49(1): 66-71. 2004.
[72]   | Inyang, U.E. and Asuquo, I.E., Physico-Chemical and Sensory Qualities of Functional Bread Produced from Wholemeal Wheat and Unripe Plantain Composite Flours. MOJ Food Processing and Technology, 2(2): 00031. 2016.
[73]   | Silvestre, M.D., Lagarda, M.J., Farra, R., Martineze-Costa, C. and Brines, J., Copper, Iron and Zinc Determination in Human Milk Using FAAS With Microwave Digestion. Food Chemistry., 68: 95-99. 2000.
[74]   | Roberts-Nkrumah, L.B. and Badrie, N., Breadfruit Consumption, Cooking Methods and Cultivar Preference Among Consumers in Trinidad, West Indies. Food Quality and Preference, 16(3): 267-274. 2008.
[75]   | Unak, P., Lambrecht, F.Y., Biber, F.Z., Darcan, S., Iodine Measurements by Isotope Dilution Analysis in Drinking Water in Western Turkey. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry, 273(3): 649-651. 2007.
[76]   | Ezeokeke, C.T. and Onuoha, A.B., Nutrient Composition of Cereal (Maize), Legume (Soybean) and Fruit (Banana) as a Complementary Food for Older Infants and Their Sensory Assessment. Journal of Food Science and Engineering, 6: 139-148. 2016.
[77]   | Salunkhe, D.K., Legumes in Human Nutrition: Current Status and Future Research Needs. Current Science, 51(8): 387-394. 1982.
[78]   | Smith, D.L., Calcium Oxalate and Carbonate Deposite in Plant Cells. In Anghileri, LJ, Tuffet-Anghileri AM, editors. The Role of Calcium in Biological Systems. Boca Raton: CRC Press; p. 253-261. 1982.
[79]   | Kelsav, J.L., Effect of Oxalic Acid on Calcium Bioavailability. In Kies C, editor. Nutritional Bioavailability of Calcium. Washington DC: American Chemical Society; p. 105-116. 1985.

[80]  
Adane, T., Shimelis, A., Negussie, R., Tilahun, B. and Haki, G.D., Effect of Processing Method on the Proximate Composition, Mineral Content and Antinutritional Factors of Taro (Colocasia esculenta, L.) Grown in Ethiopia. African Journal of Food Agriculture Nutrition and Development, 13(2): 7383-7398. 2013.

[81]   | Ikpeme-Emmanuel, C.A., Okoi, J. and Osuchukwu, N.C., Functional, anti-nutritional and sensory acceptability of taro and soybean based weaning food. African Journal of Food Science, 3: 372-377. 2009.
[82]   | Goel, R.K., Gupta, S., Shankar, R. and Sanyal, A.K., Anti-ulcerogenic effect of banana powder (Musa sapientum var. paradisiaca) and its effect on mucosal resistance. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 18: 33-44. 1986.
[83]   | Salawu, S.O., Boligon, A.A. and Athayde, M.L., Evaluation of Antioxidant Potential and Nutritional Values of White Skinned Sweet Potato-Unripe Plantain Composite Flour Blends. International Journal of Applied Research in Natural Products, 7(2): 11-20. 2014.
[84]   | Shetty, K., Biotechnology to Harness the Benefits of Dietary Phenolics Focus on Lamiaceae. Asia Pacific Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 6(3): 162-171. 1997.
[85]   | Bamishaiye, E.I., Olayemi, F.F., Awagu, E.F. and Bamishaiye, O.M., Proximate and Phytochemical Composition of Moringa oleifera Leaves at Three Stages of Maturation. Advance Journal of Food Science and Technology, 3(4): 233-237. 2011.
[86]   | Andzouana, M. and Mombouli, J.B., Assessment of the Chemical and Phytochemical Constituents of the Leaves of a Wild Vegetable - Ochthocharis dicellandroides (Gilg). Pakistan Journal of Nutrition, 11(1): 94-99. 2012.
[87]   | Grewal, H.K., Hira, C.K. and Kawatra,. B.L., Iron Availability From Processed and Cooked Wheat Products using Haemoglobin Regeneration Efficiency Method. Food / Nahrung, 44(6): 398-402. 2000.
[88]   | Gilloly, M., Bothwell, T.H., Charlton, R.W., Torrance, J.D., Bezwoda, W.R., Macphail, A.P. and Mayet, F., Factors Affecting the Absorption of Iron From Cereals. British Journal of Nutrition, 51: 37-46. 1984.
[89]   | Mensah, J.K., Ihenyen, J.O. and Okhiure, M.O., Nutritional, Phytochemical and Antimicrobial Properties of Two Wild Aromatic Vegetables From Edo State. Journal of Natural Product and Plant Resources, 3(1): 8-14. 2013.
[90]   | Onoja, U.S., Akubor, P.I., Gernar, D.I. and Chinmma, C.E., Evaluation of Complementary Food Formulated For Local Staples and Fortified With Calcium, Iron and Zinc. Journal of Nutrition & Food Sciences, 4:1-6. 2014.
[91]   | Bolarinwa, I.F., Olaniyan, S.A., Adebayo, L.O. and Ademola, A.A., Malted Sorghum-Soy Composite Flour: Preparation, Chemical and Physico-Chemical Properties. Food Processing & Technlogy, 6(8): 2-7. 2015.