Dear Label_Name,

Greetings! I hope you are well.

I am writing on behalf of an international publishing house, Science and Education Publishing, USA (http://www.sciepub.com).

Science and Education Publishing (SciEP) is a multidisciplinary open access publisher of Journals covering the fields of Science, Technology and Medicine. All SciEP publications are subject to high-quality peer review, editorial and production processes and are freely available online.

Welcome to the April, 2013 edition of SciEP newsletter, providing monthly summaries of articles on science & education related topics of interest to scientist and professionals. The mission of our journals is to provide an open access forum for publishing new findings on issues pertinent to scientific and academic field. We also invite you to submit original research papers, review articles, short reports, or case studies are considered for publication in our Multidisciplinary Journals.

American Journal of Public Health Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajphr-1-1-3

The Implementation of a Tele-Homecare System with Service Oriented Architecture and HL7 Message Transmission Standard
Ching-Sung Wang

American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
DOI: 10.12691/ajmbr-1-1-2

The Influence of Ethanol on Pyruvate Kinases Activity in Vivo, in Vitro, in Silico
Lelevich Sergey Vladimirovich, Khrustalev Vladislav Victorovich, Barkovsky Eugene Victorovich, Shedogubova Tatyana Aleksandrovna

American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
DOI: 10.12691/ajmsm-1-1-1

Clinical and Histological Features in Wegener Granulomatosis
Li Cavoli Gioacchino, Passantino Rita, Bono Luisa, Tortorici Calogera, Ferrantelli Angelo, Giammarresi Carlo, Rotolo Ugo

American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
DOI: 10.12691/ajidm-1-1-2

The Curse of Lymphatic Filariasis: Would the Continual Use of Diethylcarbamazine Eliminate this Scourge in Papua New Guinea?
Anne Lanham, Lillian Mwanri

We have released issues of some journals on February 2013.
American Journal of Public Health Research
American Journal of Medical Sciences and Medicine
American Journal of Medical and Biological Research
American Journal of Pharmacological Sciences
American Journal of Clinical Medicine Research
American Journal of Nursing Research
American Journal of Cancer Prevention
American Journal of Medicine Studies
American Journal of Infectious Diseases and Microbiology
American Journal of Cardiovascular Disease Research
American Journal of Biomedical Research
American Journal of Mechanical Engineering
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Journal of Preventive Medicine
American Journal of Food and Nutrition
American Journal of Hypertension Research
American Journal of Sports Science and Medicine
Journal of Cancer Research and Treatment
American Journal of Zoological Research
Journal of Biomedical Engineering and Technology
American Journal of Microbiological Research
Biomedical Science and Engineering

We are pleased to announce that submissions are now being accepted for peer review for all the journals across all our subject areas in SciEP.

Please submit your manuscript via our online submission system:
http://www.sciepub.com/author/signin

To unsubscribe from our mailing list, please click on the following link: unsubscribe

I am looking forward to hearing from you.

Kind regards,

David Rain
Email:join@sciepub.com
Science and Education Publishing (http://www.sciepub.com)

Human Listeriosis: An Update

K V Ramana*, S K Mohanty

Department of Microbiology, Prathima Institute of Medical sciences, karimnagar, Andhrapradesh, India

Abstract: Listeriosis in human is clinically characterized as perinatal listeriosis, neonatal listeriosis and adult listeriosis. Listeria spp are an established pathogen in animals, and human infections are usually seen following ingestion of contaminated food (processed food). Human infections of Listeria spp initially present with gastrointestinal symptoms. Meningitis, septicaemia, brain abscess and probably intrauterine and neonatal infections are considered as frequent complications of infection with Listeria spp. Of the six species of Listeria identified thus far, L monocytogenes and L ivanovii are considered as pathogenic strains to humans and animals respectively. Listeria monocytogenes are facultative intracellular bacterial pathogens, which pose a potential public health problem related to consumption of contaminated food that is facilitated by their ability to tolerate high concentrations of salt and able to survive and multiply in refrigeration temperatures. From being a saprophyte, pathogen responsible for abortion in cattle, Listeria spp have evolved in to potential human pathogens with ever increasing reports of human listeriosis.

Keywords: human listeriosis, pathogenecity, diagnosis

Received August 23, 2013; Revised November 24, 2013; Accepted December 09, 2013

Citation: K V Ramana, S K Mohanty, Human Listeriosis: An Update. American Journal of Epidemiology and Infectious Disease, 1 (4). 63-66. January 2013. doi:10.12691/ajeid-1-4-7

1. Introduction

Human Listeriosis, the infection caused by Listeria spp has been traditionally known as a food-borne illness. Listeria spp are a group of saprophytic gram positive bacilli present in the environment (soil, water, effluents etc.,) as well as colonized in alimentary tract of human and animals [1]. Infection with Listeria spp was first discovered as a cause of septicemia in laboratory animals (rabbits and guinea pigs) and later isolated from a patient suffering from meningitis [2,3,4]. Human listeriosis is normally acquired by the consumption of food (milk, milk products, meat, fish and vegetables etc.,) and close contact with animals is considered as a predisposing factor [5]. Gastrointestinal infections, mastitis and abortions are usually associated with listeriosis in animals. Currently there are six species of Listeria identified among which L monocytogenes and L ivanovii are considered as pathogenic strains to humans and animals respectively [6]. Human infections of Listeria spp normally occur following ingestion of contaminated food as evidenced from most of the previous outbreaks world wide [7]. Recent reports have also confirmed the association of human listeriosis with geriatric age population [8,9]. Human listeriois was confined to a select group of population including the pregnant women, neonates, individuals with weakened immune system [10,11,12]. Reports of Listeria spp infection among the pediatric age children who are immunologically competent, invasive infections in adult population with and without underlying causes, the occurrence of nosocomial listeriosis and community acquired Listeria meningitis should be considered as a cause of serious concern [13,14,15,16].

2. Epidemiology of Human Listeriosis

Incidence of human listeriosis varies with geographical region [17]. It has been estimated that 0.24 per one lakh people suffer from infection with Listeria in America annually. A recent report from center for disease control and prevention (CDC) has noted that among the 147 infected during an outbreak after consumption of cantaloupe 33 (22.5%) had died and a pregnant women suffered miscarriage [18]. Report from Rio d Janeiro (Brazil) by Martins et al., revealed that there was an outbreak of human listeriosis affecting six elderly hospitalized patients [19]. A study by Brouwer MC et al among the human listeriosis cases that included 30 immunocompromised patients has revealed a mortality rate of 17% [20]. An Israeli study by Seigman-Igra Y et al which reviewed 161 cases and 1808 reported cases showed that 74% of the infected patients were immunosuppressed with a mortality rate of 30% [21]. Consumption of fresh cheese contaminated with Listeria monocytogenes was attributed to an outbreak in Spain [22]. A recent study from north India by Soni DK et al have characterized Listeria spp based on the serotype, antimicrobial susceptibility patterns and presence of virulence determinant genes. This study which included Listeria spp isolated from various sources (human clinical samples, milk and ganges river water) has revealed occurrence of different serogroups that included 1/2a, 1/2b, 1/2c, 3a, 3b, 3c, 4b, 4d and 4e. The same report also demonstrated that the Listeria spp isolated from human source and other sources (milk and water) belonged to two different clones [23]. Another study by Orsi RH et al have revealed that serotypes of Listeria spp belong to 4 lineages (lineage I, II, III, IV) where in Listeria monocytogenes, the most common human pathogen belonged to lineages I and II (serotypes 1/2a, 1/2b and 4b) [24].

3. Clinical Presentation

Listeriosis in human is mainly characterized as perinatal listeriosis, neonatal listeriosis and adult listeriosis. Most cases of human listeriosis present as brain abscess or meningitis confirming the dissemination hematogenously from a local area (gastrointestinal tract) to central nervous system (CNS). Skin infections caused by Listeria spp have been noted among the farmers, agricultural workers and veterinarians presenting as pyogranulomatous rash [25]. Atypical clinical presentation of human listeriosis includes endocarditis, myocarditis, arteritis, pneumonia, pleuritis, cholecystitis, peritonitis, arthritis, osteomyelitis, sinusitis, otitis, conjunctivitis, ophthalmitis. Clinical presentation of human listeriosis is influenced by the physiological, pathological and immunological (T cell immunity) status of the host. Predisposing factors for human infections with Listeria spp include pregnant women, neonates, old age (>50 years), immunocompromised and debilitated individuals. Other predisposing factors for human listeriosis are malignancy, patients on cancer chemotherapy, immunosuppressive therapy, chronic kidney disease (CKD), and chronic liver disease. Metabolic disorders like diabetes mellitus and autoimmune diseases may also predispose to Listeria spp infections [11,26,27].

4. Pathogenicity and Virulence Determinants

Listeria monocytogenes are facultative intracellular bacterial pathogens, which pose a potential public health problem related to consumption of contaminated food that is facilitated by their ability to tolerate high concentrations of salt and able to survive and multiply in refrigeration temperatures [25]. It was only in the early 1980’s Listeria spp have been recognized as a threat to food industry that later led to further studies on its virulence factors and potential to cause serious human infections. Previous studies have elaborated on the probable mode of entry and the nature of dissemination of Listeria spp using murine model experiments and have confirmed that acute infection of Listeria spp usually starts after ingestion of contaminated food [28,29]. Listeria spp, then get colonized intracellularly in the intestinal epithelial cells before invading to the nearest lymph nodes and then disseminating through blood first to liver and then to other organs [30]. Immunologically competent host is sufficient to eliminate Listeria spp before it establishes and that could be the main reason for less number reports of human listeriosis [31]. Other significant factor attributed to under reporting and missed diagnosis of human listeriosis is the long incubation periods ranging from few days to months as noted by a recent study [32]. The profile of human listeriosis has shown a significant change from a bacterium that is responsible for gastrointestinal infections and meningitis, to a pathogen that has capability to cause invasive infections not only confined to immunosuppressed and debilitated patients but also in immunocompetent individuals [33]. The virulence factors associated with invasive Listeria infections include hemolysin (Hly), similar to the streptolysin O produced by Streptococcus pyogenes and is called as listeriolysin O (LLO), phospholipase (PLC) (PlcA and PlcB) similar to the one secreted by Staphylococcus aureus, Cholesterol dependent pore-forming toxin (CDTX), lecithinase, ActA (Actin-based intracellular motility) and internalins (InlA and InlB) that facilitate invasion [1,34].

5. Laboratory Identification Methods

Listeria spp are a group of non-sporing gram positive bacilli that have been recognized as established pathogens in animals including the cattle, sheep, wild animals, birds and other mammals [1]. Isolation rates of Listeria spp in traditional clinical microbiological laboratories are negligible when compared to other pathogenic bacteria. Studies have impressed on the importance of use of Listeria enrichment broth for increased chances of isolation from various samples [35,36]. Food processing industry has been identified as the most susceptible and possible source of Listeria spp contaminating food and food products [37]. Reports from studies including the Listeria spp isolated from such industries have identified that biofilm formation and resistance to the chemical preservative benzalkonium chloride is attributed to Listeria spp food contamination [38,39]. Studies have also stressed on the significance of molecular methods in the tracking of Listeria spp in food industry [40,41]. Human listeriosis is under reported and only few studies are available in literature, mostly from developed nations [42,43]. Use of rapid, advanced and molecular laboratory testing methods including the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) have been instrumental in the diagnosis as well as epidemiological characterization of human listeriosis. Novel techniques facilitating the study on serotypes, virulence determinants, colonization and invasive characters, clone identification and surveillance include optimized Multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis assay (MLVA) (VNTR), pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), multilocus sequence typing (MLST) and Fluorescence amplified fragment length polymorphism (fAFLP). Only few studies in the existing literature are available that report the predominant serotype prevalent and their association with a particular type of clinical illness [44,45,46].

6. Antimicrobial Chemotherapy

A evidenced from the available literature it is clear that most listerial infections in human are subclinical and clinical infections are usually associated with immunosuppressed and debilitated conditions. Ampicillin, amoxicillin and gentamicin were successfully tried among pregnant women and the management of severe invasive infections in immunocompromised patients require long term antimicrobial therapy. Listeria spp are known to show resistance to cephalosporins and erythromycin and co-trimoxazole are other antimicrobial agents effective against human listerial infections [47,48,49].

7. Discussion including Preventive and Control Measures

Clinical presentation of human listeriosis is complex and is believed to be influenced by the physiological, clinical and immunological status of an individual. Mode of entry of the bacilli, its virulence factors also play an important role in the outcome of the disease. Gastrointestinal symptoms following food contamination is the most common presentation followed by neurological complications when Listeria spp invade the central nervous system (CNS). Existing literature also indicate that Listeria spp may be excreted through feces of immunocompetent host without contributing to any clinical symptoms, thus acting as transmission vehicles for further food contamination and spread to susceptible population (pregnancy, old age) and may contribute to community acquired human listeriosis. Previous studies have also noted that it is very difficult to analyze on the probable source and entry of Listeria spp in human. Adults aged > 65 years and pregnant women who are considered as high risk groups have to be carefully evaluated and they should be advised to pay attention to the various food sources of Listeria (milk and milk products: both raw and pasterurized, meat and processed meat products) to prevent infection. Thorough cleaning of vegetables, implementation of effective hand washing technique, avoiding consumption of soft cheese and consuming thoroughly cooked and steamed food may be helpful in control of human listeriosis.

8. Conclusion

The inclusion of human listeriosis in the notifiable infectious agent list would allow determination of the distribution and characteristics of this infection and molecular epidemiological studies concentrating on the clonal group identification associated with colonization and invasive infections will help in evolving effective prevention and control measures. Clinical microbiology laboratories and health care professionals should play a pro-active role in suspecting and diagnosing human listeriosis. Conventional microbiological methods, improved selective culture methods for Listeria when assisted with rapid, advanced and molecular techniques would facilitate increased identification of Listeria spp and help in understanding the epidemiology, demographic and clinical characteristics of human listeriosis. Sporadic reports of human infection with Listeria spp should not undermine its public health impact.

Acknowledgement

I Express my sincere gratitude to the management, Prathima Institute of Medical Sciences, Karimnagar, India.

Competing Interest

None.

Source of support

None.

References

[1]   | Jose´ A. VA´ zquez-Boland, Michael Kuhn, Patrick Berche, Trinad Chakraborty, Gustavo Dom´inguez-Bernal, Werner Goebel. Listeria Pathogenesis and Molecular Virulence Determinants Clin Microbiol Rev 2001; 14(3): 584-640.
[2]   | Murray, E. G. D., R. A. Webb, and M. B. R. Swann. 1926. A disease of rabbits characterised by a large mononuclear leukocytosis, caused by a hitherto undescribed bacillus Bacterium monocytogenes (n. sp.). J. Pathol. Bacteriol. 29:407-439.
[3]   | Nyfelt, A. 1929. Etiologie de la mononucl´eose infectieuse. C. R. Soc. Biol. 101:590-591.
[4]   | Dumont, J., and L. Cotoni. 1921. Bacille semblable `a celui du rouget du porc rencontr´e dans le L.C.R. d’un m´eningitique. Ann. Inst. Pasteur 35: 625-633.
[5]   | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Multistate outbreak of listeriosis associated with Jensen Farms cantaloupe-United States, August-September 2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2011; 60:1357-1358.
[6]   | Whittaker P. Evaluating the use of fatty acid profiles to differentiate human pathogenic and nonpathogenic Listeria species. J AOAC Int. 2012 Sep-Oct; 95(5):1457-9.
[7]   | Hasbún J, Sepúlveda-Martínez A, Haye MT, Astudillo J, Parra-Cordero M. Chorioamnionitis caused by Listeria monocytogenes: a case report of ultrasound features of fetal infection. Fetal Diagn Ther. 2013; 33(4):268-71.
[8]   | Teodor A, Teodor D, Miftode E, Prisăcaru D, Leca D, Petrovici C, Dorneanu O, Dorobăt CM. Severe invasive listeriosis--case report. Rev Med Chir Soc Med Nat Iasi. 2012 Jul-Sep; 116(3):808-11.
[9]   | Descy J, De Mol P, Hayette MP, Huynen P, Meex C, Melin P. Acute cholecystitis with Listeria monocytogenes. Acta Clin Belg. 2012 Jul-Aug; 67(4):295-7.
[10]   | Delvallée M, Ettahar N, Loïez C, Decoene C, Courcol R, Wallet F. An unusual case of fatal pericarditis due to Listeria monocytogenes. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2012 Jul; 65(4):312-4.
[11]   | Spyros I Papadoulas, Stavros K Kakkos, Pantelis A Kraniotis, Maria E Manousi, Markos N Marangos, and Ioannis A Tsolakis. Listeriosis Infection of an Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm in a Diabetic Patient. J Glob Infect Dis. 2013 Jan-Mar; 5(1): 31-33.
[12]   | Clauss HE, Lorber B: Central nervous system infection with Listeria monocytogenes. Curr Infect Dis Rep 2008.

[13]  
Ianick Souto Martins, Flavia Cristina da Conceição Faria, Marco Antônio Lemos Miguel, Manuela Pereira de Sá Colaço Dias, Fernando Luís Lopes Cardoso, Ana Cristina de Gouveia Magalhães, et al. A cluster of Listeria monocytogenes infections in hospitalized Adults. Am J Infect Control 2010; 38(9): e31-e36

[14]   | Dinic M, Stankovic S. Neonatal listeriosis followed by nosocomial infection. Indian J Med Microbiol. 2013 Apr-Jun; 31(2):187-9.
[15]   | Huan-ling Wang, Khalil G. Ghanem, Peng Wang,Shuang Yang, and Tai-sheng Li. Listeriosis at a tertiary care hospital at Beijing, China: High prevalence of nonclustered healthcare- associated cases among adult patients clinical Infectious Diseases 2013;56(5):666-76.
[16]   | Brouwer MC et al: Community-acquired Listeria monocytogenes meningitis in adults. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43:1233.

[17]  
Dulcinéa Blum-Menezes, Ivânia Deliberalli, Najara Carneiro Bittencourt, Carlus Augustu Tavares do Couto, Liana Nunes Barbosa, Alessandro Marques dos Santos and Gabriel Godinho Pinto. Listeriosis in the far South of Brazil: neglected infection? Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical 46(3):381-383, May-Jun, 2013.

[18]   | Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Multistate outbreak of listeriosis associated with Jensen Farms cantaloupe-United States, August-September 2011. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 2011; 60:1357-1358.

[19]  
Martins IS, Faria FC, Miguel MA, Dias MP, Cardoso FL, Magalhães AC, et al. A cluster of Listeria monocytogenes infections in hospitalized adults. Am J Infect Control 2010; 38:e31-6. Epub 2010 Jun 8. Rebello, Renata Fernandes [corrected to Rabello, Renata Fernandes]. Erratum in: Am J Infect Control 2010; 38:849.

[20]   | Brouwer MC et al: Community-acquired Listeria monocytogenes meningitis in adults. Clin Infect Dis 2006; 43:1233.
[21]   | Siegman-Igra Y et al: Listeria monocytogenes infection in Israel and review of cases worldwide. Emerg Infect Dis 8:305, 2002.
[22]   | de Castro V, Escudero J, Rodriguez J, Muniozguren N, Uribarri J, Saez D, Vazquez J. Listeriosis outbreak caused by Latin-style fresh cheese, Bizkaia, Spain, August 2012. Euro Surveill. 2012 Oct 18; 17(42). pii: 20298.
[23]   | Soni DK, Singh RK, Singh DV, Dubey SK. Characterization of Listeria monocytogenes isolated from Ganges water, human clinical and milk samples at Varanasi, India. Infect Genet Evol. 2013 Mar; 14:83-91.
[24]   | Orsi RH, den Bakker HC, Wiedmann M. Listeria monocytogenes lineages: Genomics, evolution, ecology, and phenotypic characteristics. Int J Med Microbiol. 2011 Feb;301(2):79-96.
[25]   | Lorber B; Listeria monocytogenes; Chapter 195 IN: Principles & Practice of Infect Dis, Mandell G, Bennett J & Dolin R. 5th Ed, Churchill Livingston; pp. 2208.
[26]   | McLauchlin, J., and J. C. Low. Primary cutaneous listeriosis in adults: an occupational disease of veterinarians and farmers. Vet. Rec. 1994; 135: 615-617.
[27]   | Farber, J. M., and P. I. Peterkin. Listeria monocytogenes, a food-borne pathogen. Microbiol. Rev. 1991; 55:476-511.
[28]   | Schlech, W. F., III, D. P. Chase, and A. Badley. 1993. A model of food- borne infection Listeria monocytogenes infection in the Sprague-Dawley rat using gastric inoculation: development and effect of gastric acidity on infective dose. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 18:15-24.
[29]   | J. A. Melton-Witt, S. M. Rafelski, D. A. Portnoy, and A. Bakardjiev, “Oral infection with signature-tagged Listeria monocytogenes reveals organ-specific growth and dissemination routes in guinea pigs,” Infection and Immunity, vol.80, no. 2, pp. 720-732, 2012.
[30]   | Marco, A. J., N. Prats, J. A. Ramos, V. Briones, M. Blanco, L. Dom´ınguez, and M. Domingo. A microbiological, histopathological and immuno- histological study of the intragastric inoculation of Listeria monocytogenes in mice. J. Comp. Pathol. 1992; 107:1-9.
[31]   | Sherrid AM, Kollmann TR. Age-dependent differences in systemic and cell-autonomous immunity to L. monocytogenes. Clin Dev Immunol. 2013; 2013:917198.
[32]   | Goulet et al.: What is the incubation period for listeriosis? BMC Infectious Diseases 2013 13:11.
[33]   | B. Pron, C.Boumaila, F. Jaubertetal., “Dendritic cells are early cellular targets of Listeria monocytogenes after intestinal delivery and are involved in bacterial spread in the host,” Cellular Microbiology,vol.3,no.5,pp.331-340,2001.
[34]   | Travier L, Guadagnini S, Gouin E, Dufour A, Chenal-Francisque V, Cossart P, Olivo-Marin JC, Ghigo JM, Disson O, Lecuit M. ActA. promotes Listeria monocytogenes aggregation, intestinal colonization and carriage. PLoS Pathog. 2013 Jan;9(1):e1003131.
[35]   | Jayasinghe S, Connor M, Donaldson S, Austin H, Foster A. Spontaneous bacterial peritonitis due to Listeria monocytogenes: importance of enrichment culture. J Clin Pathol. 2010 Sep;63(9):835-6.
[36]   | Kristóf K, Barcs I, Cziniel M, Ghidán A, Nagy K. Connatal listeriosis--a case report and the possibilities of microbiological diagnosis. Acta Microbiol Immunol Hung. 2008 Mar;55(1):63-72.
[37]   | Lamden KH, Fox AJ, Amar CF, Little CL. A case of foodborne listeriosis linked to a contaminated food production process. J Med Microbiol. 2013 Jun 20.
[38]   | Nakamura H, Takakura K, Sone Y, Itano Y, Nishikawa Y. Biofilm Formation and Resistance to Benzalkonium Chloride in Listeria monocytogenes Isolated from a Fish Processing Plant. J Food Prot. 2013 Jul;76(7):1179-86.
[39]   | Rivoal K, Fablet A, Courtillon C, Bougeard S, Chemaly M, Protais J. Detection of Listeria spp. in liquid egg products and in the egg breaking plants environment and tracking of Listeria monocytogenes by PFGE. Int J Food Microbiol. 2013 Jun 20;166(1):109-116.
[40]   | Jin D, Luo Y, Zhang Z, Fang W, Ye J, Wu F, Ding G. Rapid molecular identification of Listeria species by use of real-time PCR and high-resolution melting analysis. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2012 May; 330(1):72-80.
[41]   | Shalaby MA, Mohamed MS, Mansour MA, Abd El-Haffiz AS. Comparison of polymerase chain reaction and conventional methods for diagnosis of Listeria monocytogenes isolated from different clinical specimens and food stuffs. Clin Lab. 2011; 57(11-12):919-24.
[42]   | Valero FP, Rafart JV. Incidence study of listeriosis in Spain. Gac Sanit. 2013 Jun 4. pii: S0213-9111(13)00053-8.
[43]   | Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR). Vital Signs: Listeria Illnesses, Deaths, and Outbreaks — United States, 2009-2011. June 7, 2013 / 62(22);448-452.

[44]  
Chenal-Francisque V, Diancourt L, Cantinelli T, Passet V, Tran-Hykes C, Bracq-Dieye H, Leclercq A, Pourcel C, Lecuit M, Brisse S. Optimized Multilocus variable-number tandem-repeat analysis assay and its complementarity with pulsed-field gel electrophoresis and multilocus sequence typing for Listeria monocytogenes clone identification and surveillance. J Clin Microbiol. 2013 Jun;51(6):1868-80.

[45]   | Roussel S, Félix B, Grant K, Dao TT, Brisabois A, Amar C. Fluorescence amplified fragment length polymorphism compared to pulsed field gel electrophoresis for Listeria monocytogenes subtyping. BMC Microbiol. 2013 Jan 24;13:14. doi: 10.1186/1471-2180-13-14.
[46]   | Wang Y, Zhao A, Zhu R, Lan R, Jin D, Cui Z, Wang Y, Li Z, Wang Y, Xu J, Ye C. Genetic diversity and molecular typing of Listeria monocytogenes in China. BMC Microbiol. 2012 Jun 22;12:119.
[47]   | Janakiraman V; Listeriosis in pregnancy: diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Rev Obstet Gynecol. 2008 Fall; 1(4):179-85.
[48]   | Safdar A, Armstrong D; Antimicrobial activities against 84 Listeria monocytogenes isolates from patients with systemic listeriosis at a comprehensive cancer center (1955-1997). J Clin Microbiol 2003; 41 (1): 483-485.
[49]   | Marco F et al: In vitro activities of 22 antimicrobial agents against Listeria monocytogenes strains isolated in Barcelona, Spain. The Collaborative Study Group of Listeriosis of Barcelona. Diagn Microbiol Infect Dis 38:259, 2000.