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Issues of Environmental Security of Bhutan as a Small State of South-Asia

Jatin Mech*, Abhijit Bhuyan

Furkating College, Golaghat (Assam), India

Abstract: Bhutan is called the land of ‘Thunder Dragon’, the last abode of Shangri-La. Till the sixties of just ending the century; they had no contact with the outside world. They chose the policy of isolation in order to protect their nature and culture from the negative influences of outsiders. The development road map of Bhutan is unique. Bhutanese development is inspired and influenced by their rich culture and their spirituality which is Buddhism. Their holistic approach towards development tries to carefully balance material needs with spirituality. According to Bhutanese ethos, growth should be balanced with environmental sustainability. And all of these should be balanced with the framework of good governance. They designate this unique development policy as GNH (Gross National Happiness). It is an approach to development that is holistic, equitable, inclusive, and sustainable. Because of GNH they well maintain their pristine environment which is gifted by their forefathers. Endowed with outstanding natural beauty, Bhutan's prestigious environment is endowed with rapid mountains and deep valleys that offer an eco-system that is both rich and diverse. Their constitution requires that sixty percent of their land area be under forest cover. Bhutan's present forest cover is more than seventy percent which is the highest in Asia. More than half of Bhutan is protected by law as natural parks, wildlife Sanctuaries, and Biological corridor links with one pass to the next. Today, the global community recognizes Bhutan as a hot spot of the world’s ten most bio-diverse regions. Bhutan is considered one of the hot bio-diversity homes of many endangered species. In 2009 Bhutan declared to have become carbon neutral. But in fact, Bhutan is not carbon neutral but actually carbon negative.

Keywords: environment, GNH, conservation, security

Received September 04, 2021; Revised October 09, 2021; Accepted October 14, 2021

Citation: Jatin Mech, Abhijit Bhuyan, Issues of Environmental Security of Bhutan as a Small State of South-Asia. Applied Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 9 (10). 873-878. January 2021. doi:10.12691/aees-9-10-4

1. Methodology

The entire research has been designed within the historical and analytical approach of study. In using this methodology care has been taken to avoid both the extremes that are one-sided emphasis on objective condition and subjective interpretation divorced from abstract historical reality.

Both primary and secondary sources have been used in the collection of data. Books, articles, journals, newspapers, and unpublished works have been referred to as secondary sources of information. The primary sources comprise various governmental and non-governmental documents, reports, important states pronouncement and policy statements, extracts of parliamentary debates as well as speeches and writings of prominent world statesmen and leaders.

2. Objectives of the Study

The present study highlights the following three objectives:

a. Exploring the significances of Environment Security of Bhutan as a small landlocked nation of South-Asia.

b. The study particularly focuses on the challenges of environmental issues of Bhutan due to their fragile ecology.

c. The study highlights the unique policymaking and implementation process of Bhutan to influence the global community to mitigate undesirable impacts of climate change.

3. Re-defining Security

Traditionally security studies have essentially focused attention on the nation-state within a global or regional state system as the central domain of enquiry. National Security has been defined as protection from external attack, primiarily viewed in terms of military defence against military threats. This view is based on the concept of maximizing national power in conflict situation and has led to the assumption that a nation can be sure only if it increase its power at the expense of other nations. In the words of Walter Lippmann “A nation has security when it does not have to sacrifice its legitimate interests to avoid war and is able, if challenged to maintain them by war” [1]. Generally, national security means the ability of a nation to protect its core values from external as well as internal threats. This traditional notion of national security is purely military-centric and led to the assumption that a nation's security is related to the ability of military capability of a nation.

Recent literature on national security strongly supports the thesis that the issues related to security cannot be effectively addressed without due focus on factors as societal, environmental, political, and economic [2]. The non-military dimension of national security is equally important for a nation for its existence as a sovereign state in global politics.

The place of the people should be the central issue of the entire security debate. For a common man, security means his protection from any kinds of threats of hunger, disease, unemployment, environmental hazards, and socio-political conflicts. Security thus is a psychological problem. It has two aspects.

a. The absence of objective dangers and

b. The absence of subjective fears whether or not they are justified [3].

Among the non -traditional security, environmental security also threatens the national security of a nation-state, especially for small states. Environment security examines the threats posed by environmental issues to individuals, communities, and nations. Unequal access to natural resources, degradation of the environment, and the cross-border flow of hazardous materials all enhance the likelihood of war. In the present time new geological epoch i.e., the “Anthropogenic” has emerged which expands the scope of security study.

Environmental issues have become a major player in global politics. There are many types of environmental degradation that can occur as a result of human activities, as well as the hazards that these can represent to human welfare. The clear-cut connection between environment and security is established beyond the realist framework. It is an issue of national security, thus becoming an issue to environmental security.

Environmental degradation in terms of carbon dioxide emission, ozone layer thinning, greenhouse gases, land erosion and degradation, water scarcity, deforestation, and other natural and “Anthropogenic” disasters such as floods and cyclones have all posed a danger to people’s well-being.

Because of its global nature, environmental security has become a major concern for human security. Environment and Ecology have no manmade physical boundaries, and issues of environmental degradation affect all human beings regardless of place or community. We were forced to redefine security as a result of environmental concerns. Former UN Secretary-General Kafi Anan urged in 2003 that the UN system “build new ability to evaluate and resolve possible crises arising from international natural resources issues” [4].

4. Environment Security of Bhutan

The security problems of the small states of South-Asia are not less important. Their security threats are closely associated with their size, geographical isolation and fragile environment, and limited resources. The security problems of small states of South Asia are very serious because of a poor economy which makes them unable to take proper plans for mitigates the challenge posed by climate change. Some developed small states have the ability to face the security threats themselves. The small states of South-Asia are known as 4th world nations. Due to a poor economy, they are lagging behind so far as development is concerned. Security is inextricably linked with development. Without proper developments, a nation cannot secure its people in the true sense. To face the challenge of vulnerability and insecurity a nation must have a sound economy. The result is that Bhutan’s security cannot be detached from the security of the region because developments in its immediate and distant vicinity impinge on their interests. Their principal strategy is to gather international support and commitment to its security, along with protection to other small states. Although the security policy framework is based on multilateral-cum-bilateral approach, it is more on multilateral support rather than on bilateral support.

Bhutan is situated Southern part of the Tibetan plateau. Like the other poles, the Tibetan plateau is also suffering from climate change. In Bhutan, there are 983 glaciers and 2,784 glacial lakes. Bhutan glaciers are receding about 77 meters every year. Receding 77 m/year increased the risk of flooding. A study from satellite images shows that just over 25% of Bhutan glaciers are lost from 1980 to 2010 due to global warming. Another study shows that even for conservative warming of 1 degree Celsius, at minimum 25% of the glacial areas in Bhutan will be lost very soon [5].

For centuries Bhutanese depends on agriculture and the agricultural output depends on glacier water which local people referred to as “White Gold”. Global temperature is increasing more than our prediction and resulted melting of glaciers at a high rate. Glaciers are retreating rapidly and dramatically which increases the risk of catastrophic floods living below the valley. According to the experts, all glaciers of Bhutan will disappear completely by 2025 due to meting rising global temperature. Bhutan's largest glacier Lake Thorthormi full of water and cannot hold any more water. There are more than 2600 glacier-like Thorthormi. By contrast, Lake Rapstreng fully forms a lake. Between Thorthormi and Rupstreng there is only a small wall of thirty meters. Usually, the water level rise of anyone glacier melting, the pressure on the dam will be increased, lower throw the lake Rupstreng, a super glacier lake with 53 million tones of cubic water will burst and causing flood three times the size compared to the flood of 1994. The Himalayan meltdown is creating hundreds of high-altitude lakes which contain a massive amount of glacier water. At any movement, an Earthquake can destroy all parts of the lower valley. In 1994, a dam nearby glacier lake blast and flood killed 28 people and devastated the valley below [5]. Many families lost their lives. The Luggye Lake, in 1960 which was previously a glacier is melting and the possibility of burst in near future. The risk of flooding is very high in Bhutan. So, the country has an utmost risk of flooding.

Nearly eighty percent of people of Bhutan depend on agriculture. Due to climate change agriculture is also bearing the brand. Climate change posing great dangers in the sustainable development life and livelihood of the people of Bhutan. The cause of soil erosion and land degradation makes the landholding getting smaller. Manson has become very erratic. During the Manson flash flood, landslides and erosion also threatened property and critical infrastructure. The major portion of national revenue is derived from the hydropower sector. But looming facts of climate change, including melting of glaciers, shifts in rainfall pattern swinging river flow, all of have a negative impact on the hydropower sector of Bhutan.

5. Environment Conservation Policy of Bhutan

Bhutan is a landlocked country located in the Eastern Himalayas. Besides natural beauty, Bhutan is also a unique country politically. In the 1970s the king of Bhutan famously proposed the Gross National Happiness index as a key matrix for the country’s success. GNH is a holistic approach to social development, cultural preservation, and environmental sustainability. This is also the Bhutan optimist side as the happiest country in the world. A vast difference focus, most of the country uses GDP as the major welfare of the country as a main indicator of success. As national happiness forefront in decision making, in 2008, the king of Bhutan impose a new constitution and impose multi-party democracy. This was done without pressure from Bhutan citizens who were already happy with the monarchy. However, the king shows the benefits of imposing a democratic system even allowing for his impeachment of his kingdom. For Bhutan, Gross National Happiness is more important than Gross National Product. We must understand that the entire GDP of Bhutan is only about 2 billion US dollars. But it is GNH, that they use their limited resources wisely. It is because of GNH that education is totally free for both primary and secondary levels and those who are part of higher levels. Similarly, health care is also totally free for all.

Their forests sequester 6.6 million tons of carbon die oxide each year. They generate only 2.4 million tonnes of carbon die oxide. Therefore, they are net carbon sink at about 3.9 million tons of carbon die oxide every year [6]. Bhutan's commitment to the conservation policy of the environment is really bigger than most. Conservation of the environment is one of the important pillars of amongst four that that GNH approach of development. This unique approach is not only beneficial for the people of Bhutan but also all Hindu-Kush regions where one-fifth of the world population lived. The glacier lakes and rivers flow from Bhutan provide them waters and clean air for breath.

Because of GNH they well preserve their unique culture and heritage. To save from the ill impact on their rich Buddhist culture from outsiders, they have applied a high-value low tourism policy. Within Bhutanese culture, development meant enlightenment of the individual. They think that enlightenment is the blossoming of happiness.

Because of GNH, they have good governance. Bhutan is the only state in the world where democracy is established not because of the demands of the people but was imposed by the king against the will of the people.

Therefore, within their national boundary, Bhutanese people and government well preserve their nature and resources within a unique framework under the holistic approach of GNH, which they called the development of values. But in the age of globalization where happiness is sought through consumption is the biggest threat to the national security of Bhutan.

The government of Bhutan has taken several measures to address the adverse impact on climate change and glacier melting with the support of the least developed nation plan, and other donors as part of a national adaptation program of actions by the UN inspiring the impact of climate change with a pattern of organizations such as United Nations Development Plan, Global environment facilitators, WWF, Government of Austria.

In order to remain carbon neutral, growing emissions will be mitigated by ensuring the protection of forest sink, and ensuring lower emission development part across all sectors. However, Bhutan is committed to continuing a co-active role to remain carbon neutral, while life and livelihood to the people and communities as rapid environment support of the international community will be essential for achieving the ultimate goal. Though a tiny state Bhutan has already taken pre-active, as it believes that there is an urgent need for the principle of inter-generational equity. The international community needs to be addressed long terms threats to water security, agricultural and food security, and human settlement.

All forests are banned for poaching, hunting, mining, and fixed pilot corridors are also provided in the protected areas of forests. For dust pollutions, the government provides free electricity to all farmers. A lot of amount of electricity is generated by the hydroelectricity program.

Forests are offsetting another 6 million tonnes of carbon to their neighboring countries. The government provides significant subsidy LED lights to its people with the key partnership with NISSAN electric vehicle. Bhutan has also implemented banned on plastic bags, fast food, and smoking, tobaccos, hunting, and mass tourism.

In addition to the government, Bhutan citizens are also eco-friendly in many respects. BEGIN set the new record with a total of 49,672 trees planted in one hour, smashing the previous mark by nearly 10,000 trees.

In 2016, the Bhutanese celebrated the new birth of princes by planting 108,000 trees. Simultaneous environment religious sentiment has Buddhism which symbolize-long life, health, beauty, and compassion. Bhutan's environmental efforts are surely impressive. It is a virtual nation, with a population of only just around 7,50,000 to context with it nearing neighbor China and India, the population of around 1.44 billion and 1.37 billion and annual emission of carbon dioxide 11 trillion tonnes and 2,5 trillion tones respectively(Globally 1st and 3rd biggest emitter). Meaning, China emitted 500 times much Bhutan [7]. In addition to acting as a carbon store, Bhutan is also extremely focused on storing the highest freshwater system.

Bhutan is a giant in the field of environmental preservation. With conscious leadership, the policy of causes, and relatively small populations, Bhutan has been able to keep three fourth of its land area under forest cover. Those environmentalists worldwide, Bhutan is home to many endangered species plants and animals. All these forms of life, humans included cannot live without one essential element of water. Four river systems are fed by the highest glaciers in the whirlwind to the many river valleys of Bhutan. Hydro-electricity is Bhutan’s chief export revenue earner followed by tourism. But, Bhutanese are found that the economic development has double edges sward. Like most other developing countries, Bhutan faces many problems brought about by rapid urbanization. The major one is being enticingly launched waste generations and in proper disposals. Increasingly the picture of a sitting landscape seen like this is never far from a scene like this. Bhutanese people live rather simple lives, and respect maintains for all forms of life. Yet the last fifty years of modernizations of technology and exposure to the world beyond through television and the internet has made way for revisioning consumerism.

This problem is partly unlabelled to manage waste effectively. As the population increases and more products pile up shops cells show to wade. This is increasingly noticeable in cities and towns where lands fall side overflow and almost everything that does not get lands fall take gravitations to the lowest point in the settlement.

Wastes flow in streams and rivers, the consequence of such pollutions for human settlement and aquatically life downstream are obviously graves.

These pollutions hinder the country’s hydroelectric plans which have to slow down or suspending operations in order to repair turban damage of clouds like such assuming polluted waste and teeth touches, battles and caps, plastic sheets. Yet, not many people in Bhutan appear concerned about river pollutions.

6. Buddhist Philosophy

Taktshang which is precisely the birth of the clips phase at an altitude of 3500 meters is one of the most photographs structures in Bhutan. The monastery was originally built in 1962 to marks the spot where nine centuries earlier by Guru Padmasambhava who first landed in Bhutan on the back of flying tigers. Taktshang which means the tiger’s nest is revealed as the actual spot where Buddhism to growth in Bhutan. Buddhist culture and philosophy are eco-friendly.

“Environmental conservation must be the essence of our spiritual protection”

His Holiness the 17th Karmapa.

In 2009, his holiness the 17th Karmapa created Khoryug, a network of monasteries and nunneries that work to protect the environment of the Himalayan region.

In Buddhism, essences are compassion and interdependence. Interdependence is the wisdom defining that the environment itself is inter-connected. The compassion is a combination of the feeling and actions.

“THE FOREST IS A PECULIAR ORGANISM OF UNLIMITED KINDNESS. IT AFFORDS PROTECTION TO ALL BEINGS, OFFERING SHADE OVER TO THE AXE-MAN WHO DESTROYS IT”------GOUTOM BUDDHA.

Buddhist spiritual beliefs make the people of Bhutan environment friendly. Cambodia and Thailand are other Buddhist states of Asia where people protect their environment like a part of their body and mind. Cambodia lost more than a quarter of the primary rainforest in the last twenty years, the highest rate of any Asian country and much higher than Brazil. Much of the forest has been cleared for rubber plantation and timber. Both in Thailand and Cambodia rural monks are “ordain trees. So that devout Buddhism logger out them down.

‘RADIATE BOUNDLESS LOVE TOWARDS THE ENTIRE WORLD……..

ABOVE, BELOW AND ACROSS” ---- BUDDHA

Monks are no longer just sitting in the temple, praying and reciting prayers, but they feel that Buddhism principles need to be applied towards souls' environmental activism.

Buddha was born, enlightened, thoughts and passed away in the forest. So, the forest area is revealed to be holy. Buddhist view, all are interconnected. So, herms trees, we harm our self.

More than a religion, Buddhism is philosophy, a tradition a culture, and a set of values of every Buddhist people in Bhutan which help them deal with much larger issues of the world like ecological conservation. May it be acclimated or may it be issues that are being tackled by the seventeen sustainable development goals of the UN. Whatever these sustainable goals may be, Buddhism has a solution-A proposed solution to deal with these larger problems and challenges that the entire world confronts today.

The philosophy of Buddhism amongst many other principles talks about sensitivity. Being extremely sensitive to the needs, the interests, the concerns, the feeling, not simply of human beings but of trees and plants, of animals and birds of the air and water bodies, of the nature of mother Earth, of life at large.

In Buddhist culture, people are taught to deal with inanimate objects, like water bodies and just a planet as people, as personality call if myths call it a reality. The holistic approach of development which is popularly known as GNH is somehow influenced by Buddhist values. Bhutan has been a predominantly Buddhist society for uninterrupted 1500 years. Bhutan is the only four-nation in the world that has Buddhism as a state religion. Interestingly, Bhutan is the only VAJRAYANA Buddhist country in the world. Sadly Bhutan has survived only the VAJRAYANA Buddhist kingdom today. The VAJRAYANA in Bhutan is thriving. They have more monks than soldiers. Many of them are years of solicitor meditation. There is nearly 2500 monastery in the country. They host an international VAJRAYANA conference every two years. They decided to establish the international VAJRAYANA centre in Bhutan. VAJRAYANA permits all aspects of Bhutanese life with monks conducting its ritual of consequence birth, marriage, promotion, new homes, and other day-to-day affairs. VAJRAYANA is so progressive in Bhutan that it does not just influence but defines the unique culture of Bhutan.

7. Monarchy

Leadership is the key that makes Bhutan a unique nation in the field of environment. The leadership of Bhutan is special, different, unique, and extraordinary. Bhutan is never colonized and that their culture is thriving. The country is a biodiversity hotspot and they are the only carbon-neutral country in the world. Bhutan is functioning as a truly welfare state and one of the youngest democracies in the world. But what is the most unique of all is the whole secret of their leadership. Specifically, the leadership of their Kings is unique. Bhutan is unique and successful in its own way because of only one and one factor. The extraordinary leadership of their king who had led by examples and who continued to do so. That’s why their monarchy is the most important institution in Bhutan. It is a symbol of their unity, the protector of theirs people, and the founded head of their future.

Bhutan monarchy was established in 1907. So, it is about 113 years old. The reigning king Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck is their fifth hereditary monarch. Bhutan has been blessed with enlighten monarchs who have dedicated their lives to improving and well-being of their people. All Bhutanese people love their Kings. They look into them as Plato's ideal philosopher King.

The single reason for Bhutan as a sovereign country is the extraordinary leadership exercise by their kings. But what’s the point of sovereign nations if the people are not happy. That’s why the king of Bhutan given them and through them to the world, the philosophy of Gross National Happiness. GNH is the idea that states given important collective well-being of the people instead of an unrestrained increase of material growth towards a balance economic development, social progress, cultural preservation, environmental protection, and good governance. It is essentially a program of social and economic change putting into effect that is the alternate purpose of government must be the collective happiness of society GNH lead towards a holistic set of values that gives priority to implement public policy. Simply GNH means development through values. The GNH must be the guiding principle of a better future. All development in Bhutan is driven by Gross National Happiness.

The environment is a unique aspect that united the people to work under a vision of a sovereign nation. The constitution has compelled the people to look after their forests. The constitution is clearly outlined responsibility for the individual citizen and State. The extraordinary of Bhutan is that more than seventy percent of the nation remains under forest cover. Most of the forests in Bhutan are pristine in fact version forests and absorbs about seven million carbon dioxide annually, easily offsetting the two million carbon dioxide each year. That’s mean that Bhutan is carbon negative. Bhutan is the only country in the world that is carbon neutral. Bhutan forest is not only a carbon sink; they also make a generation of renewable electricity sustainable. Today all electricity generates in Bhutan comes from renewable hydroelectricity and the clean green energy that they made exports about six million tons of carbon dioxide to its neighbor each year. Bhutan is building a few more hydropower projects. They are ready in a few years to export enough renewable energy to offset seventeen million tons in the region annually. If they are able to harness all the hydropower potentials they will be able to offset one hundred million tonnes of carbon dioxide each year. Offsetting greenhouse gases is important in the age of global warming. Bhutan set an example for the rest of the world to move in this direction.

Bhutan is trying to the custodian of the wealth of biological resources. Bhutan is a host of more than 11,000 different species of biodiversity as per the Biodiversity statistics’ released in 2021. It is 0.8% total Biodiversity recorded in the world. Plant and animal species account for more than 93% of the eleven thousand species. Bhutan has 5369 different plants, 5114 species of animals, more than 500 orchids, and 46 varieties of rhododendrons plants in addition to 350 species of mushrooms and countless curbs and wild species. Due to the huge number of medicinal plants growing in the country, Bhutan has renounced the lands of medicinal plants. Even today more than two hundred curbs and plants are used to make Bhutanese traditional medicine. More than 90 species of mammals, twenty-seven are severely threatened and this includes the rare Royal Bengal Tiger, the snow leopard, blue sheep, musk deer, and shy red panda. 770 birds species recorded in Bhutan among them eighty are globally threatened, 900 species of butterfly. Bhutan is home to fifteen vulnerable, twenty endangered, and thirteen critically endangered seeds plants [8]. The nation hosts thirteen vulnerable, eleven endangered, and two critically endangered mammal species.

To preserve these resources, more than half of their lands are protected by law.

Early warning system for possible GLOF incidents:

The water level of Thorthormi Glacier Lake which is one of Bhutan's most dangerous glacier lakes was lowered to reduce the risk of floods. Adequate early warning system installed in the downstream Punakha valley. Bhutan government employed 350 workers to fight the possible catastrophes two years ago. They traveled nine days to work to save their heavenly kingdom. Heavy machines could not use, so workers have to labor hard to remove the boulders. Thorthormi seats at four thousand three hundred meters. The oxygen is limited and Working here is very risky here. The average temperature of the working place is only two degrees Celsius. But the nature-loving Bhutanese are very much committed to saving their nation from catastrophically glacier meltdown [9].

8. Conclusion

Climate change is not only a problem in Bhutan. The problem of climate change is not created by Bhutan or Bhutanese. The main issue is that they have tried so hard but have met with little success. Bhutanese have always been climate champions, historically, traditionally, culturally, and economically, and emotionally. They have been incredibly environmentally beneficial for centuries.

Bhutan will undoubtedly be carbon negative in future generations, and this is a small gift they can make to the world. The higher the price the economically disadvantaged they are. It slows their economic growth a little, but Bhutanese politicians, the royal government, and the people are adjusting because Bhutanese are increasingly convinced that this is the way to go.

So far generations to come, Bhutan will definitely be carbon negative and that is a little gift they can give to the world. The bigger price that they are economically a little disadvantaged. It limits their economic growth a bit but politically, the royal government, and the people of Bhutan are adjusting to this because now Bhutanese are more and more clear that this is the way forward.

It is not for the immediate future, but for future generations. They get a lot of pleasure out of it is because they know it is the correct thing to do. However, it disappoints them when the larger economics that can afford to do so do not. Bhutanese citizens believe that they are a speck on the global scale, as seen by the globe map, and that greenhouse gases don’t require passports or visas to cross national borders. Larger nations, they did half of Bhutanese do, would probably not be talking about climate change as much these days. Those who believe there is a choice will most likely recognize it when it is too late.

Bhutan is a shining example to other nations to follow. Of course, Bhutan is a low-impact country. There is no reason other countries cannot adopt more humanitarian and eco-friendly policies. We should see Bhutan as an inspiration for the fight against climate change, as carbon neutrality is a key factor for the decision-making of the government. Bhutan shows carbon neutrality as its future prosperity. But climate change, a global phenomenon and requires a global effort.

Bhutan is not a rich country. It has not a far scope of rapid technological developments. It emphasized the happiness of the people. Hence, the capability to mitigate climate change is limited.

Bhutan is a part of the Tibetan plateau and massive glaciers reaching covering mainly China, but also Bhutan, India, and several other countries. It is referred to as the third pole of the world, popularly known as the Hindu-Kush Himalayan region. If freeze its ten major rivers across Asia, will effects 50 billion people.

However, the world heard the cry of Bhutan. The UN, WWE, the Australian government, and several others help Bhutan to mitigate the effect of climate change. It is global warming but a global warning for the existence of mother Earth. It is the right time to take regional and global efforts to mitigate the undesirable impacts of climate change.

“Small changes in our daily life habits can have a big environmental impact”

References

[1]   | Walter Lippman, U.S. Foeign Policy, Hamish Hamilton, 1943, p.32.
[2]   | For details see Barry Buzen, People, States and Fear: An Agenda for International Security Studies in the Post Cold War Era, Bouldel and London, Lynes Reinner, 1991.
[3]   | Quoted in Dietrich Fisher, Nonmilitary aspect of security: a System Approach, UNIDIR, Dartmouth, 1995, p.151.
[4]   | Brauch, Hans Gunter (2005). Threats, challenges Vulnerabilities and risks in environment and human security. UNU Institute for Environment and Human Security, Germany. pp 20.
[5]   | Our Eden (March 02, 2020). The World’s First Carbon Negative Country (Video file). Retrieved from https://youtu.be/0aW-zlkQe9w.
[6]   | TED (April1, 2016), The country isn’t just carbon neutral- it is carbon negative – Retrieved from https://youtu.be/OaW-zIKQe9w.
[7]   | Anuj Ramatri (NOV, 16, 2020) 10, 2019), “The Inspiring Story of Bhutan” – Retrieved from https://youtu.be/jI2ImdQV5A.
[8]   | OPHIOxford (Jan 10, 2019), ISBS: 2019. “The first Ten years of Democracy: Reflection from Bhutan” – Retrieved from https://youtu.be/HSrJGjkgaPg.
[9]   | Samer M. Singh, (2009), The Cost of Climate Change- the story of Thorthormi Lake in Bhutan, World wide fund for nature Publisher.